
Class _/-^'^— 
Book- // "7 



62d Congeess I SENATE -i ^^9^*'®'^ 

M Session f ( No. 936 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



REPORT 

OP 

COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 

OP THE 

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 



Compiled and edited by 
CHARLES H. WINSLOW 



PRESENTED BY MR. PAGE 
August 17, 1912.— Ordered to be printed 



WASHINGTON 
1912 



62d Congress ) SENATE ] ^v^"" qq^ 

Sd Session f ( jSo. 936 



mDUSTRIAL EDUCATION 



REPORT 

OF 

COMMITTEE ON INDUSTRIAL IDUCATION 

OF THE 

AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 



Compiled and edited by 

CHARLES H. WINSLOW 



PRESENTED BY MR. PAGE 
August 17, 1912. — Ordered to be printed 



WASHINGTON 
1912 







JAN 2r m^ 



V 






^ COl^TEI^TS. 

vi 

Page. 

Foreword 5 

Appointment of committee 6 

Scope of the resolution 6 

Members of the committee 6 

The problem 7 

Classification and definitions 8 

Point of view and recommendations of the committee 10 

Point of view 11 

Recommendations 18 

Conclusions 18 

Progressive attitude of the American Federation of Labor toward vocational 

education 21 

Trade union schools 25 

Digest of United States Bureau of Labor report on industrial education 33 

Public trade schools 34 

Cooperative schools 50 

Apprenticeship schools 57 

Massachusetts "independent industrial schools " • 59 

New York State system 66 

Philanthropic schools 74 

Industrial education for girls. 90 

Industrial education for negroes 93 

Vocational guidance '. 98 

State commission on industrial education 104 

Appendices: 

(a) President Gompers's report to the Toronto convention 104 

(6) Executive council's report to the Toronto convention 106 

(c) Preliminary report of committee on industrial education to the Toronto 

convention 108 

3 



INDUSTRIAL BDITCATION. 



Foreword. 



Of the great educational work which the American Federation of 
Labor has done during the past quarter of a century the pubHc in 
general has no conception. Mere statistics are wholly inadequate to 
convey the value of what has been accomplished. 

The committee on industrial education, appointed in accordance 
with a resolution adopted at the Denver convention of 1908, entered 
upon its duties with the most profound regard for the work intrusted 
to it. The committee have constantly kept in mind their great 
responsibihty, and it is with the feeling of much anxiety that they 
present for approval their report upon a question so inadequately 
developed, involving as it does the whole range of social and economic 
relations of our citizenship. 

While great progress has been made in the introduction of indus- 
trial education in the last decade, much of which, however, can only 
be considered of an experimental nature, it is confidently expected 
that the next decade will witness further great developments in the 
appUcation of a sound system of education. The line of progressive 
industrial education must be constructive. Any system to be of 
value must also necessarily be one of growth. The adoption of a 
scheme of education must train up a far more capable and compre- 
hensive body of citizens by emphasizing their position in society as 
producers, consumers, and as men. A general educational policy 
which will greatly ease the strain of demoralization wliich so sadly 
affects the children of the poor ought, by giving vocational training 
alongside of cultural training, advance them more at the age of 16 
than now obtains at 18. 

Assuming, then, that the social stratification in America is vertical, 
the problem is to find the highest elevation which any youth's abihty 
will permit him to reach and to get liim to that elevation. 

Apropos of this problem, the size of which is the length and breadth 
of America, and because of the interdependence of industrial effort, 
the American Federation of Labor's committee on industrial educa- 
tion have undertaken a comprehensive study helpful toward its 
solution. The progress made and reports issued have already had a 
salutary effect upon educators, employers, the press, and the public 
in general. Economic considerations plead for the creation and 
multipHcation of opportunities for industrial and technical education, 
and to the attainment of those laudable purposes this report is 
dedicated. 



6 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

Appointment of Committee on Industrial Education. 

In accordance with a resolution adopted by the Denver convention 
of 1908 a special committee on industrial education was appointed 
to investigate and report on the subject matter to the Toronto con- 
vention. In compliance with the resolution, the committee made 
a preliminary report, but later, by authority of the Toronto conven- 
tion, the life of the committee was extended so that it might further 
pursue its studies in the light of a searching investigation^ which 
was being carried on by the United States Bureau of Labor. 

The investigation and report made by the United States Bureau 
of Labor was undertaken at the request of the American Federation 
of Labor's committee on industrial education, and it is believed 
to be the most comprehensive inquiry ever made on the subject in 
the United States. 

Text of the resolution creating the special committee on industrial 
education: 

The president, in conjunction with the executive council of the American Federation 
of Labor, be, and is hereby, authorized to appoint a special committee of at least 15, 
to be composed of the majority of trade-union members of this convention, who will 
serve without compensation and incur no expenses other than the necessary and legit- 
imate expenditure within the judgment of the president and the executive council, 
to investigate the methods and means of industrial education in this country and 
abroad, and to report its findings, conclusions, and recommendations to the next 
annual meeting of the American Federation of Labor. 

Scope of the Resolution. 

From the terms of the resolution under which the committee was 
constituted it is evident that what was desired was: 

1. A thorough investigation of the needs of industrial education. 

2. A statement of the extent to which the needs are now met by 
existing institutions. 

3. As the result of such investigations, some definite suggestions 
for the promotion of industrial education in such a manner as might 
best serve the interests of the whole people. 

Members of Committee. 

In accordance with the provisions of the resolution there were 
appointed as members of the committee the following: 

John Mitchell, chairman. New York City. 

Mrs. Raymond Robins, president National Women's Trade Union League, Chi- 
cago, 111. 

Miss Agnes Nestor, secretary Glove "Workers' International Union, Chicago, III. 

Dr. Charles P. Neill, United States Commissioner of Labor, Washington, D. C. 

Congressman William B. Wilson, Washington, D. C. 

Rev. Charles Stelzle, department of church and labor. New York City. 

Charles H. Winslow, member Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education, 
Boston, Mass. 

Edward Hirsch, editor The Labor Leader, Baltimore, Md. 

John Golden, president United Textile Workers, Fall River, Mass. 

James Wilson, president Pattern Makers' League, Cincinnati, Ohio. 

Frank Duffy, secretary Brotherhood of Carpenters, Indianapolis, Ind. 

James O'Connell, president International Association of Machinists, Washington, 
D. C. 

John B. Lennon, treasurer American Federation of Labor, Bloomington, 111. 

Hugh Frayne, general organizer American Federation of Labor, New York City. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 7 

James Roach, general organizer American Fderation of Labor, Albany, N. Y. 
Stuart Reid, general organizer American Federation of Labor, Lynn, Mass. 

By unanimous vote at its first meeting, the following were elected 
to serve as members of the committee: 

Samuel Gompers, president American Federation of Labor, Washington, D. C. 

Frank Morrison, secretary American Federation of Labor, Washington, D. C. 

James Duncan, first vice president American Federation of Labor, Quincy, Mass. 

D. A. Hayes, fourth vice president American Federation of Labor, Philadelphia, Pa. 

William D. Huber, fifth vice president, American Federation of Labor, Indianapolis, 
Ind. 

Joseph F. Valentine, sixth vice president American Federation of Labor, Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 

John R. Alpine, seventh vice president American Federation of Labor, Chicago, 111. 

H. B. Perham, eighth vice president, American Federation of Labor, St. Louis, Mo. 

The Problem. 

The problem of industrial education and trade training is made 
extremely complex by the present system of specialization, and unless 
great care is exercised the exploitation of boys who desire to enter 
upon a career as a skilled craftsman is probable. 

A proper apprenticeship system which will guarantee to the youth 
the opportimity of learning his trade as a whole is very much desired. 

One of the disadvantages of many apprenticeship systems is that 
establishments have become so large and with so many departments 
with their divisions and subdivisions and processes that the time of 
the boy is fully employed in mastering details of one department to 
the exclusion of all other departments. Public industrial schools or 
schools for trade training should never become so narrow in their 
scope as to prevent an all around shop training. 

The progressive development of all high-grade industries requires 
skilled workmen, possessing ^'industrial intelligence" — that is, com- 
prehensive insight into and intelligent interest in their several trades — 
as well as skill. The present conditions of production are usually 
unfavorable to the training of such workmen in the shop or factory, 
and sometimes render such training impossible. All industries, 
whatever their grade, need more men than are now obtainable, who 
are capable of acting as foremen, superintendents or managers — men 
possessing the comprehensive insight, interest, and skill necessary 
for the organization and direction of a department or a shop. In 
general, such men, whether workers, foremen, or superintendents, 
are now developed only by chance, and they are then self-made men, 
possessing the merits but also the shortcomings of their training. 

Meanwhile boys are not only not directed toward the trades in our 
existing schools, but are actually often directed away from them by 
the bookish education of those schools and their purely academic 
traditions. The public schools are doing their work to-day better 
than they have ever done it. This statement is made on evidence, 
and is not merely an opinion. But, both on account of the youth of 
the children up to the end of the grammar school period and because 
of the general education which those schools exist to supply, it is only 
natural that they should not have concerned themselves with the 
development of a vocational purpose, nor with the traming which 
points toward the realization of tnat purpose. Up to the age of 14 
the whole of a pupil's time is required for the general educntion on 
which his vocational training should l)e based. 



8 IKDUSTKlAL EDUCATION. 

The high-school pupils have entered a longer career of general educa- 
tion, and in most cases look forward to a business career or to further 
study in some higher institution for a profession. The academic 
high schools, accordiagly, even when they comprise so-called commer- 
cial courses or courses in manual training are not vocational schools; 
they are schools for general education, and, like the elementary 
schools, are doing their work better than they have ever done it. 
They do not, however, aim to supply the specific education required 
for a particular calling. 

In every democratic society the schools provided the public should 
meet the needs of all classes — those who are not going to college as 
well as those who are. The existing public high schools serve to 
give a general education to those pupus whose training must cease 
on graduation, and at the same time they offer preparation for admis- 
sion to college or some higher technical school. The manual- training 
high schools — or so-called technical high schools — were intended 
originally to train recruits for the trades, but they have not done so. 
They are institutions for general education, like the academic high 
schools, but, unlike them, serve to give a certain class of pupils a 
general high-school education with the help of manual training, or, 
like them, to prepare their pupils for higher training in some college 
or engineering school. 

Boys are not wanted in most of the skilled industries until they 
are 16 years of age. The total result is a great number of boys and 
girls from 14 to 16 years of age, most of whom are at work in various 
kinds of juvenile occupations in which they learn no trade, are 
subject to little if any beneficial general education, and often to 
much harmful education from shifting experience and environment. 
Large numbers of these children would be in school if the school 
promised preparation for some life pursuit. These years are of 
little economic value to such children, and there is little increase in 
the economic value of most of them as time goes on. Hence, these 
are at present wasted years — lost to the children because of a lack of 
economic growth, and to the industries because children are not 
fitted to satisfy the demand for trained workers by the time they are 
old enough to be employed in the trades. 

These years and subsequent years are, however, valuable for indus- 
trial education; but the present school systems are wholly inadequate. 

Hence the need of industrial schools to supplement the existing 
school system and to meet a new educational need which has devel- 
oped with the evolution of our industries and commerce. 

Classification and Definitions. 

In any discussion of the present status or future development of 
industrial education it is perfectly obvious that there should be a 
common understanding as to what the subject implies, and that the 
terminology of vocational education be well defined. 

The terms, ''manual training,'' ''manual arts," "mechanic arts," 
"technical high," "industrial," "trade," and "vocational" schools 
are used by many educators and writers indiscriminately. 

It is beheved that industrial education has developed to the point 
where a definite terminology should be established, and where a seg- 
regation of the various kinds of schools mentioned should be uni- 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 9 

versally recognized. Within the schools embraced by the above 
terms, virtually the whole gamut is run, beginning with the mere 
smattering of manual training which some schools give, on through 
the manual training school, through the technical high school which 
aims to prepare pupils for higher technical instruction. 

Beyond, and distinctly separate from these, are found the strictly 
and purely ^ industrial," "trside," ^^preapprenticeship," and 
•'apprenticeship'' schools. These latter should be defined as pre- 
paring pupils to enter a manual vocation, be it described as trade or 
vocation. These schools thus distinctly differ from the aforementioned 
schools and are the ones to which attention is now being given. 

Manual training, manual arts, and technical education as supplied 
by many schools are culturalized to such an extent that they fail to 
prepare pupils to enter the manual vocations. This perhaps can be 
traced largely to the fact that these manual exercises have been 
taught by professional teachers and not by practical trade instructors 
experienced in and with the processes and practice of the trades. A 
distinct line of demarcation separating those schools which culturalize 
manual and vocational work from those which aim to prepare pupils 
to enter the manual vocations should be established. If this be done, 
it will result in a classification that will inevitably tend to the lasting 
benefit of schools aiming to prepare pupils for the manual vocations. 

TERMINOLOGY. 

The lack of strict terminology has been heretofore a confusing and 
even retarding factor in the introduction and establishment of indus- 
trial education, but it is now generally conceded that the following 
definitions are apphcable: 

Manual training. — Manual training had its beginning 30 years 
ago in secondary schools with four distinct avowed objects in view: 

(1) To educate the whole boy, to develop the entire area of his brain; 

(2) to lay a broad and appropriate foundation for higher education; 

(3) to enable a boy to discover his innate mental and physical 
aptitudes; (4) to furnish a broad basis for an industrial career should 
one's aptitude lie in the direction of the mechanical arts. It 
admitted only boys of 14 years or more, who had finished the gram- 
mar grades — the average age was about 15.^ 

Technical Thigh schools. — Technical high schools are schools giving 
training in practical industrial processes or instruction in the scien- 
tific and mathematical principles upon which these processes are 
based, whose purpose is not to prepare pupils for the trades, but 
rather for entrance to higher scientinc schools. 

Vocational schools. — This term in one sense is a broad one and 
includes commercial, technical, agricultural, and professional schools, 
as well as industrial schools. 

In its use as applied to a phase of industrial education, however, 
a vocational school is one wnich (a) prepares for a manual occupa- 
tion which is not classed as a trade, or (b) gives training in some hnc 
of manual work for the purpose of directing the pupil toward, rather 
than in immediate preparation for a trade or other manual occu- 
pation. 

1 The Logic and Method of Industrial Education, p. 7: Calvin M. Woodward. 



10 li^TDUSTElAL EDUCATION. 

Industrial education. — This term is a general one and denotes tlie 
field of education designed to meet the needs of the manual worker 
in the trades and industries, including the work of schools that aim 
to prepare pupils for entrance into the manual vocations, either as 
learners, apprentices, or journeymen, or to give supplemental instruc- 
tion to those already in a trade or other manual vocation. 

Trade preparatory schools. — Trade preparatory schools are schools 
that teach the elements of trades (including practice and some 
theory) and prepare a pupil to enter a trade school, an apprentice- 
ship, or to become a learner in a trade. 

Apprenticeship schools. — Apprenticeship schools are those con- 
ducted by employing establishments for the instruction of their 
apprentices in the processes and practices as well as the related 
drawing, mathematics, etc., of their respective trades. Occasionally 
such a school is operated outside of the establishments by other 
agencies for the employing establishments. 

Trade schools. — Trade schools are schools that teach trades in 
their entirety, i. e., the processes and practices as well as the scien- 
tific and mathematical principles upon which these processes are 
based, and take the place of an apprenticeship. 

Part-time schools. — Part-time schools are operated primarily for 
apprentices, the establishment usually requiring them to give a 
stated number of hours per week in attendance at a school not under 
the control of the establishment. 

Cooperative schools. — Cooperative schools are operated for the 
instructions of apprentices and other employes under a cooperative 
agreement between the school and the employing establishments. 
They may be, and are, conducted in connection witn public, private, 
and philanthropic efforts. 

Continuation schools. — Continuation schools are schools conducted 
(mostly in the evening) to give instruction in trades or vocations to 
those already employed in such trades or vocations. The instruction 
consists of either supplemental practice in the trades, related sub- 
jects of study, or both. 

Prevocational schools. — Prevocational schools are schools operated 
primarily to give boys and girls between the age of twelve and 
fourteen, during part of each day, some intensive work in manual 
training, m an effort to discover their natural bent for vocational 
education. 

POINT OF VIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE. 

The committee entered upon its duties without fixed notions as to 
the form industrial education should take throughout the country, 
and, in consequence, its inquiries and studies have made the most pro- 
found impression upon its members. 

Keeping in mind the scope of the resolution, as well as the com- 
plexity of the situation, the committee addressed themselves to the 
following questions, in an effort to bring out practical suggestions 
toward the solution of the problem: 

1. Should trade, vocational, technical, and industrial schools be 
estabUshed as a part of the public-school system ? 

2. Should private industrial educational institutions be tolerated? 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 11 

3. Under what conditions and terms should industrial schools, 
either public or private, be countenanced and supported? 

4. Under what conditions should the semiprivate or semipublic 
industrial schools — namely, the so-called cooperative industrial 
schools — be approved or disapproved? 

5. Should they be free or supported by the city, county, or State 
in which they are located ? 

6. Should they be under the control or partial control of the Na- 
tional Government ? 

7. Should their instructors be practical men from the ranks of 
trade occupations, or should they be men who know nothing of the 
trade itseK except its theoretical side ? 

8. What should be taught under the head of '^ Industrial educa- 
tion"; the cultural side, the professional side, the mechanical side, 
or all combined ? 

9. To what extent, if any, should labor headquarters, labor tem- 
ples, and labor halls be used to furnish industrial education ? 

10. To what extent should '^ pre vocational courses" be encouraged. 

11. What disposition shall be made of the product of industrial 
schools ? 

POINT OF VIEW. 

After an extensive as well as intensive study of the entire subject, 
covering a period of more than three years, examining the many 
experiments now in vogue, ascertaining through first hand informa- 
tion the purposes and merits of the several types of school systems 
now prevailing, the committee is prepared to offer the following as a 
partial solution of the above questions. 

In regard to 1 — should trade, vocational, technical, and industrial 
schools be established as a part of the public-school system ? 

We believe that technical and industrial education of the workers 
in trades and industry, being a public necessity, should not be a pri- 
vate but a public function, conducted by the public, the expense 
involved at public cost and as part of the public-school system. In 
order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades and indus- 
tries, there should be local advisory boards, including representatives 
of the industries, the employers, and organized labor. 

In regard to 2 — should private industrial educational institutions 
be tolerated? 

Organized labor's position regarding the injustice of narrow and 
prescribed training in selected trades by both private and public 
mstructions, and the flooding of the labor market with half-trained 
mechanics for the purpose of exploitation, is perfectly tenable and 
the weU-founded belief in the viciousness of such practices and the 
consequent condemnation, is well nigh-unassailable. 

In regard to 3 — under what conditions and terms should industrial 
schools, either public or private, be countenanced and supported? 

We believe in private initiative, coupled with active cooperation 
between the school authorities and the trade unions, or private under- 
takings which are manifestly for the educational advancement of 
trade-union members. 

In regard to 4 — under what conditions should the semiprivate or 
the semipublic industrial schools, namely, the so-called cooperative 
industrial schools, be approved or disapproved ? 



12 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

The problem is divided into two part&v as follows: 

(a) Public control of cooperative schools. 

(b) Private control of cooperative schools. 

As to (a) the cooperative-school plan is an attempt to combine 
training in the processes and practices of trades, in manufacturing 
or other establishments, with general instruction in a school which 
includes theory plus academic studies that bear directly on the trade 
work. The details of such systems vary, but the most popular is the 
half-time plan. 

While efforts have been made to establish and classify schools to 
give the various kinds of vocational instruction, little or no attention 
has been given to the necessitv for preparation of both pupil and 
teacher for such instruction. It therefore becomes desirable to point 
out that aside from the chasm which seems to exist between the 
grammar grades and the high school, and the fact that many of the 
pupils must go to work, there is a subtle, underlying, active some- 
thing which is largely ignored or lost sight of. 

This is believed to be an actual psychological condition, based upon 
and connected with mergence into manhood. A thorough study of 
the subject would doubtless establish the fact that this has more to 
do with the resignations from school at that time than the necessity 
of going to work or the existence of a possible hiatus between the 
grammar and high schools, or any other factor. 

There is no doubt that the first eight years of school work should 
be cultural in its nature, because of the fact that a boy's occupational 
bent is undeveloped and his likes and dislikes are subject to change. 
His character and habits during these years are in a formative stage. 

Boys, with very few exceptions, during this period, do not know 
what occupations they would Uke to follow, and to assign them arbi- 
trarily to any particular occupation would be illogical and perhaps 
vicious. How, then, can we keep them in school a few years longer 
and give them at least elementary training for some occupation? 
Obviously, the answer is, through cooperative part-time schools. 

A thorough study should be made of the peculiar psychological 
changes that take place at this period of a boy's life. He should be 
aided as far as possible to determine, at least tentatively, on a calling 
for life. The physique, temperament, and intelligence should all be 
taken into careful consideration in connection with this psychological 
study, in order to make a helpful, and at the same time useful, sug- 
gestion to the boy. 

Manual training, as it exists at present, could be sufficiently spe- 
cialized to afford a tryout to prospective apprentices, thus determin- 
ing their bent or adaptability to specific trades. This means that the 
manual- training work would no longer he taught by a professional 
pedagogue, but by an experienced and practical journeyman, or other 
person in the trade, with sufiicient adaptability and training as a 
teacher to impart his knowledge, and, at the same time, gain the con- 
fidence of the pupils in the practice classes. 

As great a variety of occupations should be provided as is possible, 
depending upon the size of the town or city. In. towns and cities 
having only one high school, it would easily be possible to give a thor- 
ough preapprenticeship course of at least two years in certain trades, 
and for the remaining two years, other courses might be given to that 
portion of the class that did not take trade or occupational work the 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATIOlSr. 13 

first two years. In this way, the desires of practically all the students 
could be met. 

In the last analysis, industrial education will be measured by 
intensely practical men of the industrial world, on the basis of skill 
and inteUigence, as developed by these undertakings, to fit the youth 
of the country for wage-earning occupations. In order to meet this 
test successfully, apprentices must be trained under real conditions in 
productive industry, thereby making the cooperative-school plan a 
necessary feature of our pubhc-school system. 

Other reasons why cooperative schools should be a pubhc charge 
are as follows: 

1. Because of the very nature of things, past and present, the 
general public has confidence in the public-school system. 

2. The manufacturer ought not to be exj^ected to run his establish- 
ment to teach trades; nor can he be criticized for making '^ machine 
specialists" instead of all-around machinists, when one takes into 
consideration the fact that he is working to accomplish a very defi- 
nite end; that is, to turn out a product. 

3. The public schools should teach the theory of the trade, while 
the actual practice and processes should be taught in the shop. 
This method permits of continuous development of capacity and 
relieves the manufacturer of the expense of the theoretical instruc- 
tion, and provides a means of weeding out boys who are not adapted 
to particular trades. 

4. By this method the boy, the employer, and the community are 
benefited. The obligation to provide mdustrial education of a theo- 
retical nature, therefore, should rest entirely with the public schools. 

As to (b) — private control of cooperative schools: 

The committee reaffirms its position in condemning any system of 
public instruction privately controlled, or any scheme of private 
selection of pupils, and calls attention to the introduction of a plan 
which is being put into operation in several localities and fostered by 
manufacturers' associations. 

This cooperative scheme is a limited plan for industrial education, 
carried on oetween the high school, which engages a teacher for the 

f)urpose, one satisfactory to the manufacturers, and a group of the 
atter who indenture such boys as they desire to have. The idea is, 
of course, to give a thorough training. But — 

(a) The manufacturer is not obliged to take any boys or to keep 
any boy. 

On tne other hand, the high school is obliged to educate aU duly 
quahfied boys, to give them all that the city provides. 

Therefore those who study in such a cooperative course do so on 
sufferance. 

(b) The people have no hand in this plan. No matter how much 
a father may desire such training for the boy, the city is helpless to 
do anything, as under this plan the veto power over the boy's right 
to pubhc industrial education is in the hands of the manufacturer. 

(c) The public school must be neutral as to trade unionism. 
Surely it dare not be hostile. But what is there to restrain one or 
all the cooperating plants from assuming any attitude, however 
hostile? They have the right to teach and to foster antiunionism 
with school-apprenticed boys under them. 



14 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

{d) A boy who should talk over or agitate for union principles can 
be instantly deprived of his educational future under this plan; and 
if his father should be a known union champion, only the good nature 
of the manufacturer can prevent reprisal in the form of dropping the 
boy from this course. 

Xe) The teacher can not help siding with the manufacturers; he 
can not protest, should he so wish, if they import scabs, strike 
breakers, or any sworn foes of unions. It is not for the school to 
say who shall be the fellow workmen of these young student 
apprentices. If he be a man of principles, he could not take the 
boys out of such a shop, for they are under bond. 

(/) Finally, with a teacher too soft on the side of the manufactur- 
ers, we shall see for the first time in a public-school system a spirit new 
in evil power — a class of schoolboys trained under a thoroughly 
un-American system of private selection of pupils, based on no public 
or competitive method, unless the manufacturers so permit. 

A system wholly removed from the salutary supervision of the 
people. 

A system which needs no check in prejudicing the favorites of this 
system against the large excluded class of their schoolfellows, and 
later against their fellow workmen themselves. 

Any scheme of education which depends for its carrying out on a 
private group, subject to no public control, leaves unsolved the fun- 
damental democratic problem of giving the boys of the country an 
equal opportunity and the citizens the power to criticize and reform 
their educational machinery. 

In regard to 5 — should they (the schools) be free, supported by the 
city, county, or State in which they are located ? 

The committee reaffirms its advocacy of free schools, free text- 
books, the raising of the compulsory school age, and a close scrutiny 
of courses and methods of instruction. 

In regard to 6 — should they (the schools) be under the control or 
partial control of the National Government ? 

Results vast in importance and magnitude have come from the 
action in Congress in 1862, in giving land grants to each State, 
to be used for State colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts. This 
appropriation of lands, followed by direct appropriation of moneys 
in 1890 and 1907, provides these colleges with a fund averaging 
about $65,000 per State, or a total of over $3,000,000 annually. 
While the funds so appropriated were for a long time used largely 
for general studies, the subjects of mechanic arts, agriculture, and 
home economics were finally developed, so that they now compete 
on nearly equal terms with the literary and scientific courses. 

Since most of this fund is in demand to train engineers, technical 
agriculturists and teachers in the mechanic, agriculture and home 
economics subjects, comparatively little is available to give school 
training to those who wish to become experienced workmen, farmers 
or home-makers. 

There is a movement at present, in which labor is taking a prom- 
inent part to still further develop education, to which these colleges 
were dedicated. Since only one college in a State can do little more 
for our greatly enlarged population, than to provide courses of study 
for those who are to become technicians, and can not give equal 
opportunity in liberal and practical education to all of the industrial 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 15 

classes, this new movement is crystallizing around a plan for including 
the secondary public schools under the scope of additional similar 
grants, thus creating and giving direction to a complete national 
scheme of education, in which labor should receive recognition and its 
just share of attention. 

In regard to 7 — should their instructors be practical men from the 
ranks of trade occupations, or should they be men who know noth- 
ing of the trade itself except its theoretical side? 

The committee believes that experience in European countries has 
shown that academically trained teachers have been dismal failures; 
notwhithstanding this experience, many so-called trade or vocational 
schools in the United States have, in the recent past, attempted 
experiments with academically trained teachers with very unsatis- 
factory or disastrous results. 

The teachers of trades and manual vocations must keep up with 
modern shop practices and processes in establishments which are doing 
regualr productive work; otherwise they will fall far behind and be 
teachers of obselete methods and processes. Successful teachers 
must be men of practical experience, with more than a text-book 
acquaintance with the industrial world. 

A good trade teacher needs at least a fair general education, with 
specialized knowledge of such arts or sciences as may be related to 
the trade he is to teach; a practical knowledge of the trades such as 
is usuaUy gained only by working at them under ordinary shop con- 
tions, and in addition an understanding of the general principles of 
teaching, that he may be able to impart his knowledge to others. 
The combination is not a common one. To be a skilled trade worker 
presupposes years of training and experience in the shop, and men 
possessmg this have usually begun work by 16, with only a grammar 
school education at most. Even if they have added to this by night 
study thsy have had no experience in teaching, and find much diffi- 
culty in imparting their own knowledge to learners. The trained 
teachers, on the other hand, while thoroughly familiar with the 
theory and underlying principles of the trades, usually lack concrete 
and practical experience with industrial processes. As a general 
rule, therefore, the school has to choose between the skilled worker 
not trained as a teacher and the professionally trained teacher, who 
knows the theory of the trades, but has little, if any, practical expe- 
rience. 

In regard to 8 — what should be taught under the head of ''Indus- 
trial education" — the cultural side, the professional side, the mechan- 
ical side, or all combined ? 

The committee beheves that the course of instruction in a school 
giving industrial education should include EngHsh, mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics, and drawing; the shop 
mstruction for particular trades and for each trade representea; 
drawing, mathematics, mechanics, physical and biological science 
applicable to the trade, the history of that trade, and a sound system 
01 economics, including and emphasizing the philosophy of collective 
bargaining. This, it is believed, will servo to prepare the pupil for 
more advanced subjects, and, in addition, disclose his capacity for a 
specific vocation. 

In regard to 9 — to what extent, if any, should labor headquarters, 
labor temples, and labor halls be used to further industrial education '^ 



16 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

The committee is convinced that there are conspicuous activities 
throughout the country known as ''educational hours" at central 
labor union meetings, which might well be exemplified to advance and 
organize a propaganda for industrial education. Such meetings might 
also be turned into an educational ''forum " in the interest or advocacy 
of membership by trade unionists on both State and municipal educa- 
tional boards and committees. 

In regard to 10 — to what extent should " prevocational courses" 
be encouraged ? 

For more than a decade the introduction of properly balanced 
courses in trade training and the enrichment of these courses have 
embarrassed the advocates of industrial education not a Httle; in fact, 
attempts to scientifically analyze processes and practices of the trades 
have met with resentment on the part of superintendents, super- 
visors, and foremen of large industrial estabhshments. The reason 
for this resentment is that those usually seeking such information are 
manual-training schoolteachers, unfortunately the greater number of 
whom are women. Moreover, it is conceded that such teachers have 
very Httle sympathy \vith trades, as such, but look upon manual and 
trade instruction as a way out of the difficulty of educating the sub- 
normal pupil. Hence, the objection of those interested in trades or 
trade education to thrusting upon industry the dull boy. 

On the other hand, even public trade school instructors in some 
instances have turned a deaf ear to what they call impertinent 
inquiries as to methods of procedure. Such instructors usually 
consider the proper kind of equipment, processes, and practices 
necessary for the training of apprentices "their stock in trade." 
However, insistent demand that rule of thumb methods be aboHshed 
has resulted in genuine attempts to teach the trades scientifically, 
systematically, and sympathetically. 

As a result of this new era in the advancement of scientifically 
arranged courses with the necessary equipment, it seems eminently 
proper at this time to point out the overwiielming desire on the part 
of advocates of manual-training schools to estabfish within such 
schools and elsewhere " prevocational courses" for pupils between the 
ages of 12 and 14. 

While we welcome practical courses for those who are to later enter 
upon specialized vocational and industrial courses, we maintain that 
"prevocational courses" should be taught by tutors with practical 
knowledge of the vocations toward which the pupils are to be pointed; 
in other words, we can not too strongly condenm any attempt to 
thrust upc5n school systems courses of instruction which presumes to 
try out the adaptability of the pupils for particular vocations and 
which are taught by women teachers with absolutely no practical 
knowledge of the metal, woodworking and such other trades for 
which instruction may be offered. 

If '' prevocational courses " are to be offered in publicly administered 
schools in an effort to establish a scheme of vocational guidance, then 
we insist that such courses be given by men tutors, who not only 
have a practical knowledge of the particular trades, but in addition, 
teaching experience coupled with an insight into the adaptability 
and inclination of the pupils for such vocations.^ 

* Same to apply to trades and vocations in which women are exclusively employed. 



liSTDUSTEIAL EDUCATION, 17 

Finally, we favor and advocate increasing the number of men 
teachers in industrial schools, as well as ^'prevocational schools" to 
the end that all practical instruction in trades be given by properly 
trained teachers who have had in addition to their teaching experience 
at least four years practical experience at particular trades. 

In regard to 11 — what disposition shall be made of the product of 
industrial schools ? 

A most serious and troublesome question arises concerning the 
disposition of the product of industrial schools. If the teaching of 
any trade in its entirety is to turn out journeymen, near journeymen, 
or all-round workmen, then there must necessarily be a product 
which will have a commercial value. If it is not, the work has not 
been carried on as it would be under real commercial conditioxis and 
the training therefore is imperfect. 

If the product of these schools is to be put upon the market in any 
way, there is likely to be much opposition from manufacturers^ 
contractors and organized labor. Since it will inevitably come into 
competition with the product of regular establishments, it has been 
pointed out that if the students were regular apprentices in industrial 
establishments, they would be working as much in competition with 
apprentices and journeymen in other establishments, as if they were 
doing the same kind of work and producing the same kind of articles 
in the schools. This meets the objection only partially from the 
standpoint of labor and not at all from that of the employer. In both 
cases, the objection is to what may be called subsidized competition; 
competition which is not hampered by the necessity of making its 
product pay for its own cost of production. The difficulty does not, of 
course, arise in apprenticeship schools in which a manufacturer 
trains his own employees, but in philanthropic and pubhc industrial 
schools, it presents a serious problem, for which as yet no satisfactory 
solution has been found. 

As previously stated in this report, the committee believes that 
instruction should be given for its educational value or, in other 
words, it should be '' construction for instruction, rather than instruc- 
tion for construction." 

An agreement between school authorities and contractors who are 
erecting public buildings, whereby pupils of schools given instruction 
in building trades, shall be permitted during a part of the time to make 
practical application of their training, on buildings in course of erec- 
tion, the pupils to receive credit for such work as part of their course, 
has been suggested as a feasible and unobjectionable plan. Similarly 
the work under the various city departments, has been suggested to 
provide practice for pupils in many other trades. 

This in no way is a new experiment, as practical apphcation of the 
same is being made in foreign countries with considerable success. 

A minor difficulty in connection with a product having a commercial 
value is the temptation to increase output by keeping the student 
longer at one machine or operation than is absolutely necessary for 
practical educational purposes, in other words, there may be a tend- 
ency, for the sake of revenue, to follow the example of the shop and 
specialize instead of "giving well-rounded training. This, however, 
is a matter of school administration but, nevertheless, of great concern 
and can be easily guarded against if the right attitude is shown by 
school administrators. 

59608°— S. Doc. 936, 62-2 2 



18 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 

RECOMMENDATIONS . 

The committee, after due consideration of the importance of the 
several systems of schools now in operation throughout the country, 
recommend the following specific types of schools for the advance- 
ment of the prospective apprentice to the trades, as well as for those 
who have already entered the trades: 

1. Supplemental technical education: Supplemental technical edu- 
cation for those already in the trades. The demand for such instruc- 
tion is measured by the necessity for training in particular trades and 
industries, and the chief aim of such instruction should be to present 
those principles of arts and sciences which bear upon the trades 
either direct^ or indirectly. Such schools are commonly known as 
continuation schools, whether their sessions are held in the day, 
evening, or on the part-time plan. 

2. Industrial education: The establishment of schools in connection 
with the public-school systems, at which pupils between the ages of 
14 and 16 may be taught the principles of trades, not necessarily in 
separte buildings but in schools adapted to this particular education 
b}^ competent trade- trained teachers. 

3. Trade-union schools: The committee recommends the continu- 
ance of progressive development in supplemental trade education as 
inaugurated by trade-unions, such as the supplemental trade courses 
established by the International Typographical Union; technical 
courses of the Photo-Engravers' Union; School for Carpenters and 
Bricklayers, Chicago, 111.; the International Printing Pressmen's 
Technical School, at Rogersville, Tenn.; and the School for Carriage, 
Wagon and Automobile Workers, of New York City. The commit- 
tee further recommends that all trade-unions v/hich have not adopted 
a scheme of technical education give the matter the consideration it 
so richly deserves ; and they further believe that the undertakings of 
the above unions call for the most enthusiastic admiration and are 
entitled to the most cordial and loyal support. 

4. We finally recommend that if in the course of time schools 
under public administration with a broad and liberal course of 
instruction (with an advisory committee composed of eniployers as 
well as trade-unionists) shall demonstrate practical efficiency in 
training workers for the highly skilled trades, we favor the recog- 
nition of that portion of time spent in the schools which, after an 
examination by the union at interest of the practical and theoretical 
ability of the apprentice, can be considered comparable to actual 
training in particular trades as a substitute for a period of. the 
apprentice's time spent entirely in the industry. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

The committee believes that there are pressing educational needs 
which can at least partly be solved by the introduction of industrial 
training. At present a very large proportion of the children leave 
school between the ages of 14 and 16. They change from one occu- 
pation to another, having no particular qualification for any voca- 
tion, and gain little in efficiency. Industrial education betwe|3n the 
ages of 14 and 16 ought to awaken a new school interest and help to 
retain them longer in school; moreover, if industrial training took the 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 19 

children between the ages of 14 and 16, when they are of little value 
in a business way and at a time when such education as the}^ have 
received is of advantage to them so far as it goes, but hardly fits 
them for actual working places, then it would give them the proper 
training to prepare them to enter some branch of trade or vocational 
work. At the time our present pubhc-school system came into oper- 
ation it met the needs of the people; the industries were carried on 
in the home, and the children were taught the manual arts there; 
the boy was taught his trade by his father, and the girl and her 
mother carried on in the home much of the work now performed in 
the factory. Economic conditions have changed and the schools 
must change with them. The ranks of skilled labor are being depleted 
and the work of the trades is being done by unskilled men or semi- 
skilled machine speciahsts. 

The trade unions have been waiting in vain for 25 years for the 
manual-training schools to furnish recruits to the ^^ depleted ranks" of 
skilled labor. It is time now to take steps to bring back the standard 
of efficiency. We want a system which wiU develop the labor power 
of our people so that every worker may become interested in his work 
and approach the limits of human efficiency. Our public-school 
system of to-day teaches too much and educates not enough, and 
fails entirely to prepare its pupils for productive labor. It must be 
changed, and quickly, and the change must be radical. We can not 
add a few experiments in trade training in our larger cities or introduce 
intense manual training in manual-training school departments to 
supplement a Latin and Greek curriculum. Our boys and girls must 
leave school thoroughly prepared by industrial training to do well 
some kind of productive work. A healthy community is impossible 
without the union of the schoolhouse, the home, and workshop. 
Modern life has not yet accommodated itself to the great revolution 
of our industrial system. Nothing but a thorough industrial educa- 
tion and understanding of economical interest of society can lead to 
the necessary union between labor and capital and give peace and 
prosperity to the present disturbed and suffering industrial world. 

We believe that the education of workers in trade or industry is a 
public necessity, and that it should not be a private but a public 
function, conducted by the public and the expense involved at public 
cost. 

We are opposed to the plan in operation in some places of having 
public instruction privately controUed. In such schools the boy 
receives his trade instruction only on sufferance of the manufacturer, 
and often he is surrounded by an atmosphere hostile to organization 
and expelled if suspected of union tendencies. 

The State has provided schools to teach trades to the mentally, 
morally, and physically deficient; our corrective institutions, orphan 
asylums, and blind schools are equipped to teach useful occupations. 
By what ri^ht can we refuse the same chance for the normal boy or 
girl ? Would it not be more sage to engraft industry upon our public 
school system, and rather prevent pauperism, crime, and premature 
orphanage than make them the bridge to industry? AVe think so, 
and we do not beg it as a favor, but we demand it as a right. The 90 
per cent who are going into manual occu])ations have the same right 
to the best preparation for their life's work that the State can give 
them as has the 10 per cent who go into the professions. 



20 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATIOISr. 

Organized labor is concerned also with, who the teachers in these 
schools shall be. Men who have had only theoretical training do 
not and can not make effective teachers of trades. We do not wish 
to be misunderstood, we do not belittle or underestimate the value 
of theoretical training, we regard it as necessary, but theory must be 
combined with practical experience. The potential workman must 
be brought in contact with the man who has actually done things 
and who knows how and why he did them. Who can not only build 
a machine, but having built it can make it go, can give that training 
of attention that is acquired in having to do things with a real motive 
behind and a real outcome ahead. And not only must the teachers 
be men and women of practical experience, but so also must those 
who are to direct them. It is hardly to be expected that the executive 
head of a trade school can successfully direct the activities of that 
school and dictate its policy if that person has only text book acquaint- 
ance with the great industrial world. They, too, must be people 
who have actually come in personal contact with the problems 
for which they are trying to find a solution. 

We are opposed to any system which turns out not machinists but 
machine specialists. Specialization in the industrial world is very 
different from professional specialization. Instead of being at the 
top of his trade, your machine specialist is at the bottom, if indeed 
he can be considered as in the trade at all. He is a man who can do 
but one thing, and who knows little or nothing of Ihe general prin- 
ciples of his trade. His whole eflB.ciency is spelled ''s-p-e-e-d." 

We would protest, also, against those schools operated for profit, 
which advertise short cuts to the trades. They are turning out not 
even machine specialists, but are flooding the labor market with 
half- trained mechanics for the purpose of exploitation. There is a 
growing feeling which is gaining rapidly in strength, that the human 
element must be recognized, and can. not be so disregarded as to 
make the future workmen either ineflB.cients or mere automatic 
machines. 

While we are willing to subscribe to any plan that offers efficient 
and practical instruction in productive operation, we do insist that 
emphasis must be placed upon education rather than upon product. 
The youth must not be exploited in the name of education. There 
must be the minimum of product and a maximum of education. In 
short, during the period of education it ought to be ''construction 
for instruction, rather than instruction for construction." 

One of the great troubles in America to-day is that too many of 
our wage earners are misfits industrially. It frequently happens 
that in the matter of selecting a vocation or trade the individual is 
consulted too little. His trade is selected for him because it seems 
to provide lucrative employment or because it was the trade of his 
father and not because there is anything in the work which appeals 
to him. He is summarily shot into a trade regardless of his adapt- 
ability to it; result, he goes through his life a misfit and mediocre 
workman, not because he lacked ability, but because his energies 
were misdirected. We must have a system whereby the boys and 

firls of the country may have an opportunity to acquire educated 
ands and brains such as may enable them to earn a living in a self- 
selected trade or vocation and to acquire an intelligent understand- 
ing of the duties of good citizenship. The training for citizenship 



IKDUSTKIAL EDUCATION-. 21 

(the teaching of civics) is woefully neglected in practically all trade 
and vocational schools. The schools that are run for profit and the 
corporation schools say frankly, "Our business is to teach the trade, 
to turn out men who can do the work; beyond that we have no con- 
cern. Whether they can cast an intelligent vote or not does not 
interest us." Some of the philanthropic and public schools make a 
feeble attempt at teaching civics, but very few of them are getting 
anywhere. In most cases the human side is lost sight of. We want 
the boy (and girl) to be taught the fundamentals of civics, the mean- 
ing of government, and the reason that law must be obeyed. He 
must be taught what the result of ungoverned emotion or uncon- 
trolled action of any kind will be. He must be made to realize that 
the boy of to-day is the voter of to-morrow and that he has obliga- 
tions to society which he must discharge, and in order to discharge 
them he must be taught broader views of citizenship and ideals of 
right and clean living. 

He should be taught something, too, of his own economic value. 
He must understand the value of collective bargaining and of how 
to adjust his relations with his employer. If our boys were instructed 
in such matters before they enter the competitive field there would 
be fewer labor disputes. We want men as well as mechanics. 

PROGRESSIVE ATTITUDE OF THE AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR 
TOWARD VOCATIONAL EDUCATION. 

The American Federation of Labor first appointed a com^mittee on 
education at its twenty- third annual convention in 1903. This com- 
mittee, however, considered only the work in manual training and 
technical education which was to be done by the unions themselves > 
and concluded that "the subject of manual training and technical 
education to be given by trade unions is of such a general character 
that this convention could not very weU recommend any plan or 
poHcy that would apply equally to all unions, on account of the 
diversity of conditions and difference in skill required." A com- 
mittee was appointed in 1904 and one again in 1905, but neither ever 
reported. 

The committee on education of the twenty-sixth convention, 1906, 
again recommended that the committees already appointed conduct 
investigations into the subject of apprenticeship, the graduates of the 
trade schools, manual training, and schools of technology. The rec- 
ommendation was adopted without discussion. These various resolu- 
tions serve to show that the organization was becoming interested in 
the subject, as it had always been in other phases of education, but 
the trade-school proposition, with other phases of industrial educa- 
tion, was first brought squarely before the American Federation of 
Labor at the Norfolk convention, November, 1907. The secretary 
of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrijil Education 
addressed the convention on the second day of its session, when a 
resolution was introduced stating the policy of the federation in the 
following words : 

Wliereas an organization has been formed, known as a National Society for the Promo- 
tion of Industrial Education, haviu'i; for its object flie raising of the standanl of 
education along industrial lines; and 

Whereas some misapprehension exists in many quarttns as to the attitude of organized 
labor upon this subject: Be it, therefore, 



22 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATlOlsr. 

Resolved, That this, the twenty-seventh annual convention of the American Fed- 
eration of Labor, having in mind the experience of many of our national unions with 
the so-called trade school, which attempted to teach a short cut to trade and which 
on some occasions was used as a weapon against the trade-union movement, do not 
favor any movement having this ulterior object in view; and be it further 

Resolved, That we do indorse any policy, or any society or association, having for its 
object the raising the standard of industrial education and the teaching of the higher 
technique of our various industries. 

The resolution was referred to the committee on education. It 
reported that it — 

Decided to record itself in favor of the best opportunities for the most complete 
industrial and technical education obtainable for prospective applicants for admission 
into the skilled crafts of this country, particularly as regards the full possibilities of 
such crafts, to the end that such applicants be fitted not only for all usual require- 
ments, but also for the highest supervisory duties, responsibilities, and rewards; and 
your committee recommends that the executive council give this subject its early 
and deep consideration, examining established and proposed industrial school systems, 
so that it may be in a position to inform the American Federation of Labor what in 
the council's opinion would be the wisest course for organized labor to pursue in con- 
nection therewith. 

The report of the committee was adopted. 

The executive council proceeded as instructed, securing its informa- 
tion chiefly by correspondence, and in its report to the twenty-eighth 
annual convention, 1908, reported very briefly on schools recently 
established, and recommended that all correspondence and material 
on the subject be turned over to a committee for report and further 
recommendation. 

The committee on education made a report on the portion of the 
report of the executive council just noted and clearly summed up the 
situation as viewed by it, concluding with recommendation for a 
special committee to consider the subject, as follows: 

We note with satisfaction the splendid progress accomplished by the executive 
council along the lines of industrial education, carrying out the instruction of the Nor- 
folk convention. Much data and material have been brought to hand and referred 
to your committee. But your committee feels that in no sense with the limited time 
allotted them can they make a complete report on the value of the mass of material 
referred to them on this subject, and we can best submit our recommendations in the 
following resolution: 

''Whereas industrial education is necessary and inevitable for the progress of an indus- 
trial people; and 
"T\'hereas there are two groups with opposite methods and seeking antagonistic ends 

now advocating industrial education in the United States; and 
"Whereas one of these groups is largely composed of the nonunion employers of the 
country who advance in industrial education as a special privilege under conditions 
that educate the student or apprentice to nonunion sympathies and prepare him as 
a skilled worker for scab labor and strike-breaking purposes, thus using the children 
of the workers against the interests of their organized fathers and brothers in the 
various crafts; and 
"Whereas this group also favors the training of the student or apprentice for skill in 
only one industrial process, thus making the graduate a skilled worker in only a very 
limited sense and rendering him entirely helpless if lack of employment comes in 
his single subdivision of a craft; and 
""Wnbiereas the other group is composed of great educators, enlightened representatives 
of organized labor, and persons engaged in genuine social service, who advocate 
industrial education as a common right, to be open to all children on equal terms, 
to be pro^dded by general taxation and kept imder the control of the whole people, 
with a method or system of education that will make the apprentice or graduate a 
skilled craftsman in all the branches of his trade; and 
""UTiereas organized labor has the largest personal and the highest public interest in 
the subject of industrial education, and should enlist its ablest and best men in 
behalf of the best system, under conditions that will promote the interests of the 
workers and the general welfare: Now, therefore, be it 



INDUSTRIAL EDtJCATlOlT. 23 

^^ Resolved, That the president, in conjunction with the executive council of the 
American Federation of Labor, be, and is hereby, authorized to appoint a special 
committee of at least 15, to be composed of a majority of trade union members of this 
convention, who will serve without compensation and incur no expenses other than 
necessary and legitimate expenditure within the judgment of the president and 
executive council, to investigate the methods and means of industrial education in 
this country and abroad, and to report its findings, conclusions, and recommendations 
to the next annual meeting of the American Federation of Labor." 

The recommendation of the committee was concurred in and the 
special committee appointed. 

The president in his report to the Toronto convention in 1909 
clearly stated the j)osition of the federation. He referred to the 
attempt of the National Association of Manufacturers to give the 
impression that organized labor is opposed to all industrial education. 
He asserted that American labor is in favor of true public industrial 
education, but stated its opposition to narrowly specialized training 
under control of private interests. 

The executive council reported the appointment of the special com- 
mittee of 15, authorized by the previous convention. This special 
committee reported to the convention through its chairman that it 
had held meetings in New York City, Washington, D. C, and Toronto, 
Canada. It stated its task, in accordance with the terms of the reso- 
lution under which it was appointed, to be: 

First. A thorough investigation of the needs of industrial education; 

Second. A statement of the extent to which needs are met by existing institutions; 
and 

Third. As a result of such investigations, some definite suggestions for the promo- 
tion of industrial education in such manner as might best serve the interests of the 
whole people. 

The committee also reiterated the opposition of organized labor to 
any schemes of industrial training, public or private, which do not 
give thorough training in craftsmanship, but only the superficial 
training which serves to furnish strike breakers. 

The trend toward the introduction of schemes of industrial educa- 
tion and apprenticeships at public as well as private expense, which 
pretends to teach trades in periods ranging from four months to four 
years, and turn out graduates in times of industrial peace who are 
able to earn only 50 per cent of the established wage in a given trade 
and in times of industrial dispute are exploited in the interests of 
unfair employers, is worthy only of condemnation. 

It briefly reviewed the history of the appropriations for the land- 
grant colleges, and asserted that such schoms fail to benefit the large 
mass of citizens of the States. 

It emphasized its judgment of the importance of the whole prob- 
lem in the following conclusions : 

It is believed that the future welfare of America largely depends on the industrial 
training of our workers and in protecting them. 

The inquiries of the committee seem to indicate that if the American 
workman is to maintain the high srandard of efficiency, the boys 
and girls of the country must have an opportunity to acquire educated 
hands and brains, such as may enable them to earn a living in a self- 
selected vocation and acquire an intelligent understanding of the 
duties of good citizenship. 

Reference was then made to the present unsatisfactory school 
situation, where the great majority never complete the grades, 



24 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

because of lack of interest on the part of the pupil and dissatisfac- 
tion on the part of the parent because the schools ''do not offer 
instruction of a more practical character." Emphasis was put on 
the need of a healthy public sentiment which should hold the trades 
to be honorable vocations, and eradicate the false ideal of the superi- 
ority of clerical occupations. 

The committee crystallized its views in the following recommenda- 
tions: 

The importance of this kind of school for those who have aheady entered the trades 
has been a matter for serious consideration by the committee. 

The demand for such instruction is measured by the necessity for training in par- 
ticular trades and industries, and the chief aim of such instruction should be to present 
those principles of arts and sciences which bear upon the trades and industries, either 
directly or indirectly. 

The economic need and value of technical training is not to be disregarded, and 
cognizance should be taken of the fact that throughout the civilized world evening 
and part-time day technical schools enroll 20 pupils to every one who attends the other 
types of vocational schools. 

And the committee submits for consideration and discussion to the convention the 
proposition that there be established, at public expense, technical schools for the 
purpose of giving supplemental education to those who have entered the trades as 
apprentices. 

We favor the establishment of schools in connection with the public-school system 
at which pupils between the ages of 14 and 16 may be taught the principles of the 
trades, not necessarily in separate buildings but in separate schools adapted to this 
particular education, and by competent and trained teachers. 

The course of instruction in such a school should be English, mathematics, physics, 
chemistry, elementary mechanics, and drawing. The shop instruction for particular 
trades, and for each trade represented, the drawing, mathematics, mechanics, 
physical and biological science applicable to the trade, the history of that trade, and a 
sound system of economics, including and emphasizing the philosophy of collective 
bargaining. This will serve to prepare the pupil for more advanced subjects, and in 
addition to disclose his capacity for a specific vocation. 

In order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades there should be local 
advisory boards, including representatives of the industries, employers, and organized 
labor. 

The committee recommends that any technical education of the workers in trade 
and industry being a public necessity, it should not be a private but a public function, 
conducted by the public and the expense involved at public cost. 

The committee further recommended the continuance of its life 
to the convention of 1910; that the United States Department of 
Commerce and Labor be requested to investigate the subject here and 
abroad ; that the committee cooperate with the Department of Com- 
merce and Labor; and that affiliated organizations of the American 
Federation of Labor furnish all information possible on the subject. 

The report was referred to the committee on education, which con- 
curred in its recommendations, including the continuation of the special 
committee to the 1910 convention, and further recommended that 
sufficient copies of the report be printed for distribution to affiliated 
organizations. The report of the committee was adopted. 

At the thirtieth annual convention held in 1911 the committee 
authorized by the Denver convention made no report, but a special 
committee on industrial education was appointed to review its work. 
The special committee made the following recommendations, which 
were unanimously adopted by the convention: 

Your committee recommends the continued advocacy of labor's bill for vocational 
education — known as the Dolliver bill — which, as you will recall, provides for educa- 
tional cooperation between the State and Federal Governments and for State and 
Federal control and supervision of public industrial education. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 25 

It recommends, also, that the special committee appointed by authority of the Den- 
ver convention be continued, and that that committee "be urged and authorized to 
prosecute their investigation, and to lend their every assistance to the accomplishment 
of the extension and completion of comprehensive industrial education in every field 
of activity." 

Tkade Union Schools. 

The establishment of the Printing Pressmen's Technical Trade 
School, following the example set by the International Typographical 
Union, marks another epoch in the introduction of trade education 
by trade unions. 

That the typographical union and the printing pressmen should be 
the first trades unions to establish such schools was a foregone con- 
clusion, for in proportion as occupation makes claim on the intellect 
of the workers greater educational opportunities become necessary. 

Those trades which call for the greatest intellectual or technical 
skill on the part of the worker afford the most available opportuni- 
ties for educational activity. 

It is not because the personnel in the printing trades is better, but 
rather because these occupations are becoming increasingly more 
technical and subdivided in their character. 

It is confidently expected that the photo -engravers and book- 
binders, will be the next to establish opportunities for their member- 
ship to secure practical technical and trade education, as already 
both of these organizations have taken definite steps in this direction. 

Probably the most progressive step taken by any international 
organization with reference to the education of its apprentices, with- 
out actually providing schools for the same, has been taken by the 
Pattern Makers' League of North America. A copy of their appren- 
ticeship rules follows: 

All apprentices who have been such for a period of one year, after examination by 
the executive committee, shall be eligible for membership. 

During his apprenticeship he shall attend a school teaching technical courses such 
as will fit him to become a practical and competent journeyman (such schools to be 
approved by the association). The apprentice should graduate in such studies before 
the expiration of his apprenticeship. 

Each apprentice who has worked one year at pattern making and has proven his 
capacity for learning the trade shall be eligible for membership in the association on 
the payment of an initiation fee of $1. Before admission the apprentice shall be 
approved by the men in the shop and by the executive committee of the association, 
and must show that he entered the business at the required ago and is properly regis- 
tered in a school teaching technical courses, as deemed necessary by the association to 
educate the apprentice in order to make a practical and competent mechanic. 

TECHNICAL TRADE SCHOOL OF THE INTERNATIONAL PRINTING PRESS- 
MEN AND assistants' UNION OF NORTH AMERICA. 

The Printing Pressmen'.^ Technical Trade School was founded in 
conformity with a resolution adopted at the twenty-third annual 
convention of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' 
Union of North America. 

The school was formally established in June, 1912, at Rogers ville, 
Tenn., with an enrollment of 18 resident students and a waiting list 
of more than 200 applicants as resident or corresponding stuck^its. 
It had been planned to open the school late in the year 1912, but 
insistent demand by prospective students made it necessary to 
hasten the opening. 



26 iKDUSTBlAL EDUCAMOK. 

The first step in connection with the estabhshment of the school was 
taken at the twenty-second annual convention of the international 
union. That convention authorized the appointment of a com- 
mission of five to investigate and report on the feasibility of the 
establishment of a school for the members of the union. The com- 
missioners, after an exhaustive study of the necessity for trade and 
technical education for the members of the union and an investiga- 
tion of methods for the promotion of such an education, reported to 
the following annual convention. The convention accepted the 
report and authorized the commissioners to establish a school, the 
scope of which is as follows : 

1. That the commissioners be instructed to establish a school of technical education, 
to be operated upon the following basis: 

(a) Cause to be placed in operation sufficient machinery along lines as recommended, 
by Chairman Cashion, whereby practical demonstration can be had by our member- 
ship attending the school, and practical demonstrations to be made for these taking 
the correspondence-course. . That the said school shall be located in the city of Chicago 
in order to conform with offers made (and to be able to accept) by manufacturers of 
printing machinery. That there be set aside sufficient funds by the international 
union, and the income from the American Pressman (over and above the expense) 
for the operation of said school. This fund to be known as the American Pressman 
and technical education fund. 

(6) That there be appointed by the international board of directors (approved by 
the present technical-education commission) three trustees of said commission, with 
the editor of the American Pressman, who shall be chairman, the president, and the 
secretary treasurer of the international body. Said members to constitute trustees 
for the operation and maintenance of the technical school of education, and that said 
trustees, or their successors, excepting the president and secretary of the international 
union, and the editor of the American Pressman, to be selected by referendum vote 
of the international union to be held for the election of international officers in 1912. 

(c) Said trustees to be empowered to select a general superintendent and chief 
instructor, who shall, under the direction of the trustees, be empowered to operate 
the school and employ such other assistants and make such other arrangements for 
operation of same as may be most practical for the advancement of same. 

(d) That the secretary-treasurer of the international union shall be the secretary- 
treasurer of the trustees, and of the fund to be known as The American pressman and 
technical education fund. Said trustees shall cause to be made a bond in the interest 
of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union for the sum of not less 
than $5,000, the expense of same to be borne by the fund; and that all disbursements 
shall be made by check, and by the secretary-treasurer, and countersigned by the 
president of the International Union and the chairman of the trustees. 

2. That the school shall be operated on the following basis: 

(a) That only members of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' 
Union in good standing shall be eligible for a course of education in the institution. 

(6) That there shall be a correspondence course, followed up by drawings and 
demonstrations, in a manner most practical for the education of the members; and 
that the basis of cost of same, which is recommended by the commissioners, be: 
Three months' course, $5; one year's course, $15; life course, $25; the same to be paid 
in advance. 

(c) That there shall be a practical demonstration course. Students desiring this 
course can enter the institution and receive direct instruction, said course to be $30. 
The time allotment to be determined by the chief instructor. 

3. That for the economical operation of said institute, all possible arrangements 
to be made for getting out official work of the International Union in the institution. 

4. That the secretary-treasurer of the international union shall make quarterly 
reports of the financial receipts and expenditures, and that same shall be duly com- 
piled and presented to the annual convention of the international union. 

5. That the operation of The American pressman in connection with the advance- 
ment of the technical education program as heretofore stipulated shall not have for 
its object the changing of any of the laws dealing with the operation of The Pressman, 
except in connection with the financial requirements, and in this it is hereby provided 
that arrangements of salary, percentage, etc., now being provided for by the laws 
for the editor and manager, shall continue in operation, and further, that all funds 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 27 

over and above the expense of The American Pressman and technical school shall 
revert to the general fund of the International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' 
Union at the end of each fiscal year. ^ 

TERMS AND COURSE OF INSTRUCTION. 

The privilege of admission to the school and of subscription to the 
correspondence course in presswork is confined to members of the 
International Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union. The rates 
of tuition are as follows: The six weeks' course of practical demon- 
stration for those attending the school, $30; correspondence course, 
three months, $5; one jesLT, $15. 

The course of practical demonstration is arranged to conform to 
each student's particular needs, being based on his knowledge of the 
craft acquired previous to entering the school. 

The correspondence course is intended not only for those who, from 
lack of time or other reasons, can not attend the school but also for 
those who desire a wider knowledge of presswork than they can acquire 
in the six weeks' practical demonstration. As may well be imagined 
the correspondence course will be complete, up-to-date, and prac- 
tically exhaustive. It will thoroughly cover the subjects of paper 
and other printing surfaces, inks, varnishes, reducers, driers, forms 
of all sorts, type, machine-set matter, electros, zinc etchings, half 
tones, process plates, etc., presses of all sorts, electricity preventives, 
rollers, and all styles of make-ready, etc. The correspondence course 
will be, in short, an encyclopedia of presswork and much more elab- 
orate than any previous w^ork of a similar nature, in this or allied 
fields, ever attempted. 

In order to place the correspondence course in the hands of sub- 
scribers as soon as possible and also to keep it thoroughly up to date 
at all times, it will be furnished in loose-leaf form, in installments as 
rapidly as each installment can be completed. The choice of and 
the furnishing of a loose-leaf cover will be left to the subscriber, and 
the first installment and successive installments can be included 
between the same covers by the subscriber, as all installments are 
to be printed on sheets of uniform size, with holes for the loose-leaf 
binder punched along the inner or binding edge. 

At the present time three and four color process printing and 
rubber offset printing seem to most interest the membership. These 
subjects will be covered, of course, but it is not the intention of the 
school merely to perfect the student's knowledge of any one process. 
Special knowledge desired wiU be furnished first and afterwards 
information necessary for a wider and more complete mastery of the 
craft will be supplied. 

Any one who has attended the school or taken the correspondence 
course will be welcome to ask questions concerning presswork, with 
the assurance of a prompt reply. 

By taking advantage of the ehistic feature of the loose-leaf book, 
the (n)urse may be kept thoroughly up to date at aU times, which 
would be manifestly impossible siiould an attempt be made to cover 
the subject of presswork in a single volume as ordinarily bound. 

The correspondence course in presswork will in itself be a specimen 
book of presswork, not only telling but showing the subscriber how 
to print various sorts of forms in various sorts of ink (and in various 
colors), on various papers and other surfaces of various coloi-s by 
using (lifTerent presses and methods of make-ready. 



28 



INDUSTEIAL EDtJCATIOK. 



The lessons comprise a study of the various operations, processes, 
and practice in presswork and are as follows : 

Press operation and suggestions for the heginner. — The two-revolution 
flatbed cylinder press, the air springs, setting the cylinder and bed- 
bearers, adjusting the side bed guides or gibs, to adjust register rack, 
placing the pacldng on the cylinder, shrinking the packing, gauging 
thickness of make-ready, adjustment of the grippers and shoefly, 
adjustment of sheet bands, setting the feed guides, to set the paper 
slitter, setting the rollers, setting the ink fountain, make-ready on 
the cylinder press, underla3dng, overlaying, cut overlays, hints on 
underlaying and overlaying, causes of slur and the remedies, how to 
secure and retain register, three and four color process printing, com- 
position rollers, flat color printing, platen presswork, platen press 
rollers. 

SCHOOL EQUIPMENT. 



Pressroom, 

One 45-inch Seybold cutter, equipped 
with a 3-horsepower Crocker-Wheeler 
motor. 

One 44|-inch Dexter cutter, equipped 
with a 2-horsepower Crocker- Wheeler 
motor. 

One Harris offset press with SJ-horse- 
power Triumph Electric motor, including 
Harris automatic feeder operated by 
^-horsepower motor for blower, connected 
with Kohler controlling system. 

One Hoe offset press, equipped with a 
Dexter automatic feeder and S^-horse- 
power Roth Bros. & Co. motor, with one 
monitor controlling system for the same. 

One transfer press. 

One Dexter folding machine, with ^- 
horsepower Crocker- Wheeler motor. 

One 10 by 15 Chandler & Price platen 
press, with ^^-horsepower motor attached. 

One 8 by 10 Chandler & Price platen 
press. 

One Boston wire stitcher, equipped 
with small motor. 

One perforating machine. 

One No. 9 Optimus press, with 3-horse- 
power Triumph motor. 

One Johnson roller rack. 

One make-ready table. 

One 5-horsepower General Electric 
motor. 

Two Miehle presses, equipped with 3- 
horscpower Roth Bros, and Crocker- 
Wheeler motors, respectively. 



Pressroom — Continued. 

One mechanical chalk reUef overlay 
outfit, complete. 

Fifteen tables. 

Forty trays. 

Nine flat trucks. 

Nine waste paper trucks. 

Green's rotary type-hi planer. 

Melton automatic cooler. 

Large consignment of various kinds of 
ink and paper stock and offset supplies. 

Composing room. 

One Mergenthaler linotype machine, 
equipped with ^-horsepower Swing elec- 
tric motor. 

One Vandercook proof press. 

One galley rack. 

Two double stands and cases. 

One triple stand and cases. 

One cabinet and cases. 

One cut cabinet. 

Two metal-furniture racks. 

One cabinet .wood furniture. 

One imposing stone. 

Three tables. 

One melting furnace. 

One lot of Climax blocks and hooks. 

One lot of Warnock blocks and hooks. 

One lot upright grain printing bases. 

Twenty zinc galleys. 

Five brass job galleys. 

Platen and book chases. 



INTERNATIONAL TYPOGRAPHICAL UNION COURSE OF INSTRUCTION IN 

PRINTING, CHICAGO, ILL. 

This course of instruction in printing was founded by the Inter- 
national Typographical Union, which in 1907 appointed a commis- 
sion to formulate some method of providing a technical education 
for journeymen and apprentices in the trade. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 29 

The Hot Springs convention of the International Typographical 
Union adopted the following resolution: 

Whereas it is becoming more apparent, year after year, that the apprentices in 
printing offices are being restricted in opportunities to learn the trade in its prin- 
^ cipal branches, thereby minimizing their value as journeymen, and realizing 
the tendencies of foremen, as a rule, to make specialists of the apprentices: There- 
fore, be it 

Resolved, That the executive council of the International Typographical Union 
is hereby instructed to appoint a commission of three, whose duty it shall be to 
formulate some system for the technical education of our members and apprentices, 
and that this commission be not restricted in its efforts in this direction; and, further. 
Resolved, That the executive council is hereby authorized to expend such sum 
of money as in its judgment may be deemed necessary to defray the expense of 
said commission. 

Resolved, That said commission report the result of its work to the next conven- 
tion of the International Typographical Union, 

The commission reported that in the average shop the opportunities 
for thoroughly learning the trade of printing did not exist. Specializa- 
tion kept some printers indefinitely on one kind of Avork ^nd provided 
but a narrow field of instruction for the apprentice. This circum- 
stance had resulted in a perceptible decrease in skill among printers, 
who were practically given no opportunity to acquire the mastery of 
tfceir trade. A second result of this lack of a general training was the 
necessity of calling on outsiders for some of the work which it was 
asserted rightfully belonged to the printers. These outsiders are 
the professional designers, who are trained in art schools, where they 
have learned the principles of lettering, design, and color harmony, 
and have been given opportunity to exercise originality. 

With all these considerations in view the typographical union real- 
ized that the printers needed technical education, and as a central 
school was not possible, the idea of the correspondence school was 
adopted as the only practical means of effecting the desired change. 
The typographical union did not propose ^'to make printers but to 
give apprentices, journeymen, and even master printers an education 
supplementary to that of the printing office. '' 

The commission decided upon a correspondence course, and in 
doing so determined that the lesson should be sufficiently compre- 
hensive to embrace subjects that can not now be learned in printing 
offices. That is, the student should be taught the principles of the 
printing art in such a way as would enable him to master the principles 
pertaining to harmonious color and type arrangement. This will 
widen the field for printed matter, creating a demand for labor, and 
assist printers who desire to take up designing or the development of 
advertising ideas. 

In order that the tutors should be of the best, the union has made 
arrangements to assume control of the experts attached to the Inland 
Printer Technical School. There is no cavil as to the excellence of 
this institution; under union auspices it has in the last few years 
graduated more than 2,000 machine operators, and the thoroughness 
and completeness of its instruction in this and other branches, as well 
as its success, has won the unstinted praise of trade educators. 

This course is an effort to teach and disseminate the art principles 
that underlie good tArpography. It is imparted by corres])ondence, 
the student being given personal instruction and criticism of his work 
by expert instructors. First-class display or decorative typograpliy 



30 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

is not a matter of taste, but results from expounding (usually uncon- 
sciously) the well-known principles of design. They are familiar 
to the commercial artist and in the course they are made clear to the 
craftsman, it being written by printers for printers. 

The lessons are arranged logically for the man or youth with office 
experience. Principles are expounded first and then the student 
solves problems in practical work (either in type or by sketches, 
as best suits his circumstances) under competent instructors. This, 
notwithstanding it is a new idea in typographical education and 
introduced in a novel way. The course is open to any person engaged 
as a compositor. The course prepares the compositor for the work 
of to-day or to-morrow, is logically arranged, and begins with making 
the real tools of the printer — letters; shows, through a study of the 
principles of design, the how and the why of display work; equips com- 
positors to do the work of the designer; insures better results, as 
ability to design and execute are thus coordinated; elucidates color 
harmony in 'a scientific though simple manner by a printer for 
printers; gives thorough training in all descriptions of display or 
decorative typography, after the student has been drilled in under- 
lying principles which he applies to his work, which thereby become 
his own production, not an imitation of some other compositor's 
work; is imparted by a universally commended system of correspond- 
ence, which insures close personal attention not possible by the 
class method of instruction, and insures the student the best advice 
on trade problems as long as he remains at the trade. 

This course makes an especially strong appeal to the victims of 
specialization, who are now at one branch of the trade and that not a 
very skillful or lucrative branch. The prevailing system of appren- 
ticeship deadens the initiative where it is alive and allows it to remain 
dormant where it is not highly developed. 

The course consists of 37 lessons, as follows: The first nine have 
to do with lettering, lessons 10 to 14 treat of design; 15 to 19 treat 
of color harmony, and the next 11 lessons on composition of various 
kinds, and the remaining 7 lessons consist of information on paper 
making, plate making of various kinds, and imposition. 

The course covering 37 lessons the student printer completes 
according to his leisure and his ability. All students pay a tuition 
fee of $23 in advance, or $25 if tuition is paid in installments. 

The subjects are as follows: 

Lettering: Including Roman capitals in pencil, Roman lower case in pencil, italic 
in pencil, inking in Roman capitals, inking in Roman lower case, inking for italic, 
Gothic alphabets, making cover-page design. 

Design: Balancing measures, proportion, shape harmony, tone harmony, pre- 
liminary sketches or arrangements of lines and masses. 

Color harmony. 

Composition: Including letterheads, billheads, business cards, envelope comer 
cards, tickets, menus, programs, cover pages, title-pages, advertisements, layout of 
booklets and books. 

Papermaking. 

Plate making of various kinds. 

Imposition: Including 4 and 8 page forms, 12 and 16 page forms, 24 and 32 page 
forms, and forms for folding machines. 

The instruction aims to so qualify journeymen and apprentices 
that they can do any form of printing that comes into their shop. 
The only requirement for enrollment is that applicants must be 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 31 

compositors, whether journeymen or apprentices. During 1911-12 
the school had 3,092 pupils enroUed. 

SCHOOL FOR carpenters' APPRENTICES IN CHICAGO, ILL. 

In 1907 the need for better training among carpenters' appren- 
tices was strongly felt by the unions and by contractors and builders. 

Upon application to the board of education, and by agreement 
between the board and the arbitration board of the employing 
carpenters and carpenters' unions of Chicago, it was arranged 
to have certain public schools open for the instruction of carpenters' 
apprentices during three months of each year. As a result, sepa- 
rate classes for carpenters' apprentices were conducted in two public 
day schools, namely, the Horace Mann School and the James Otis 
school. The joint arbitration board extended the arrangement for 
instruction to the Central Young Men's Christian Association, the 
Lewis Institute, the Pullman Evening School, and the Chicago 
Technical CoUege. 

The following rules laid down by the joint arbitration board, which 
is given jurisdiction over apprentices, show the general plan along 
which the employers, unions, and the apprentices work: 

The contractor taking an apprentice should engage to keep him at 
work in the trade for nine consecutive months each year, and see that 
during the remaining three months of the year the apprentice attends 
school during January, February, and March, and a certificate of 
attendance from the principal of the school attended must be fur- 
nished to the joint arbitration board as a compliance with this require- 
ment before he is allowed to work during the coming year. A con- 
tractor taking an apprentice should keep him steadily at work or at 
school; failing to do so, he should pay him the same as though he had 
worked. In case an apprentice at the end of his term of four years, 
for want of proper instruction in his trade, is not a proficient worker, 
and if, after a thorough investigation, the joint arbitration board find 
that the contractor to whom he was apprenticed did not give him 
proper instruction and an opportunity to learn his trade, he may be 
required to serve another year with whom he and the joint arbitration 
board may determine and at a rate of wages (less than the minimum 
in his trade) the}^ may determine, and the difference between said 
rate and the roinimum scale in his trade should be paid through the 
joint arbitration board. 

The purposes in establishing these schools are to give such instruc- 
tion in the theory of the carpenters' trade as would supplement prac- 
tical knowledge, which the apprentices get in their outside trade work. 

The number of apprentices enrolled during the year 1911-12 is 
approximately 400. The subjects taught during the last scheduled 
year were: English, spelling, American history, applied arithmetic, 
mechanical drawing, geography, mechanical drawing applicable to 
bridges and houses, mechanical drawing including house plans, and 
some geometry, science, manners, morals, and hygiene. 

The courses cover three winter sessions of 12 to 13 weeks each year. 
The schools are in session from 9 a. m. until 12 m. every day from 
Monday to Friday, inclusive, and from 1 to 3.30 p. m. on Mondays, 
Wednesdays, and Fridays, and from 1 until 2.30 p. m. on Tuesdays 
and Fridays. 



32 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 

In the first year there are ^ve 90-minute periods per week devoted 
to architectural drawing, five to elementary arithmetic, two 150- 
minute periods each week to plan reading and estimating, one 90- 
minute period to building construction and building laws, and two 
90-minute periods per week for advanced English, spelling and pen- 
manship. In the second and third years there are each week seven 
90-minute periods for architectural drawing, ^Ye for practical mathe- 
matics (by which is meant a combination of arithmetic, geometry and 
trigonometry), two 150-minute periods for plan reading and estimat- 
ing, and one for studying building construction and building laws. 

The apprentices come under the instruction of tutors who have had, 
apart from their practical trade experience, teaching experience in 
cultural subjects. 

At the expiration of each term a certificate is issued by the school, 
which shows the pupil's attendance and class record, including the 
number of sessions attended, the number of excuses for absences, and 
the grade attained for each branch taken by the apprentice. Unless 
such a certificate is presented to the joint arbitration board, and unless 
when presented it shows satisfactory attendance as well as profici- 
ency, the apprentice does not receive a work card. 

As has already been stated, the schools claim only to give the. 
apprentices a start in the technical part of their trade. Usually the 
ordinary carpenter's practical knowledge of his trade is entirely out 
of proportion to his theoretical or technical knowledge, and on this 
account he loses much time and wastes material. The aim of these 
schools is to correct this condition. 

SCHOOL FOR CARRIAGE, WAGON, AND AUTOMOBILE WORKERS, NEW 

YORK CITY. 

This school was established in September, 1909, by the wood 
workers' branch of the Carriage, Wagon, and Automobile Workers' 
Union of New York, with 80 students. The school was founded on the 
belief that a great majority of the workers at the trade would not 
have an opportunity to learn the details of the craft in the shop or 
elsewhere, and that a mechanic can never be considered competent 
without this accomplishment. 

The aim of the school is to furnish its members with instruction in 
the sciences applicable to all branches of the trade. 

The entrance requirements for the school are a paid-up card in the 
Carriage, Wagon, and Automobile Workers' Union and a satisfactory 
examination as to competency as a craftsman. 

The school is a cooperative undertaking between the members of 
the union who desire instruction and the union. The fee for tuition 
is $25 per term of 26 weeks, with an additional fee of $3 per month. 

The course comprises three years of 26 weeks each year. The 
hours of the sessions are from 9 to 12 every Sunday morning, with 
evening sessions of one hour during each evening of the week. At- 
tendance at evening sessions is not compulsory, but students are 
expected to attend if they can do so with profit. 

Diplomas are issued on examination to successful students, but a 
diploma is never granted to a student unless his average attendance 
has been 75 per cent of the course. 

Each student must furnish his own drawing boards, drawing 
materials^ and such other articles as may be necessary., 



industrial education". 33 

Digest of the United States Bureau of Labor Report on 

Industrial Education. 

A carefully prepared, exhaustive, and discriminating resume and 
analysis of nearly every industrial and trade school in the United 
States was made by the United States Bureau of Labor during the 
year 1910. 

This report, which was made at the request of the American Feder- 
ation of Labor, is considered the most comprehensive study of 
industrial education ever undertaken. Particular attention is given 
in the report to the courses of study in each school investigated. 

The evident purpose of this inquiry by the bureau was to present 
to the reader the kind of courses which were being offered the youth 
of the country taking trade courses to fit for industrial occupations. 

In the following digest of the report it is the purpose to discuss in 
brief the most vital points in connection with trade education. 

A survey of the schools providing trade instruction which are 
divided as follows: Philanthropic schools, public schools, and cor- 
poration schools, discloses the most interesting fact that the whole 
number of pupils in the public trade and industrial schools is 14,751, 
of whom 3,097 are girls; the whole number of pupils in philanthropic 
schools is 10,694, of whom 3,556 are girls; the whole number of ap- 
prentices in railroad corporations and other estabhshment schools is 
approximately 5,000, or a total of 30,445 pupils in all the schools. 

A most interesting feature in these schools is the differentiation 
as to the age limit for entrance, for example: The lowest age 
limit for entrance in the pubhc schools is shghtly less than 15 years, 
the lowest age limit for entrance into philanthropic schools averages 
16 years, while the lowest age hmit for entrance into apprenticeship 
schools is approximately 16 years and 6 months. 

Apropos of the age of prospective apphcants into the trades, it is 
well to consider the experience of the past five years in these same 
schools. There has been no rush of especially desirable boys to fill 
apprenticeship vacancies, and the quality of the boys who do appear 
is various. Those who succeed in their undertaking are those of 
good quality, the ilhterate fail, and thus it is perfectly clear that the 
foundation for a trade education must be built on a higher standard 
of elementary school instruction. 

There is a marked tendency in philanthropic schools to shorten the 
appreinticeship term to considerable less than two years. On the 
other hand the public schools have gradually increased the course of 
an apprentice to three years. The term of apprenticeships in corpo- 
tion schools are almost universally four years. 

The following is a list of trades and occupations taught in the 
schools investigated by the United States Bureau of Labor: 

boys' trades. 

Baking, basket making, blacksmithing, boilermaking, bookbinding, 
brass finishing, bricklaying, brickmaking, broom making, cabinet- 
making, carpentry, carriage trimming, comont working, cigarmaking, 
coach carpentering, cobbling, copper and brass working, copper- 
smithing, die cuttmg, electrical working, electroplating, engravmg, 

59608°— S. Doc. 936, 62-2 3 



34 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

firemen, forging, gasfitting, glove making, harness making, hot-water 
fitting, horseshoeing, instrument making^electrical and scientific 
musical instrument making — jewelry making, ladies' tailoring, 
lathing, lithographing, machinists, tool making, masonry, mining, 
molding — core making — optics, painting — house, carriage, sign, 
fresco, graining — j)aperhanging, pattern making, plastering, plumb- 
ing, pottery, printing — (a) composition, (b) presswoik — sheet-metal 
workmg — {a) cornice workers, (b) skylight workers — ship writing, 
shoemaking, silver plating, silversmithing, stationary engineering, 
steam engineering — (a) gas, (b) gasoline — rsteamfitting, stone carving, 
tailoring, tile setting, tinsmithing, upholstering, watchmaking, wheel- 
writing, wood carving, wood turning, woodworking. 

girls' trades. 

Millinery, elementary millinery, advanced millinery, millinery 
design, artificial flower making; dressmaking, elementary dress- 
makmg, advanced dressmaking, designing, garment cutting, hand 
sewing, machine sewing, ladies' underwear making, ladies' tailoring, 
embroidering; power machine operating, foot machine operating, 
garment making, children's garment making, shirtwaist making, skirt 
making, tailoring; household arts and science. 

BRANCHES OF THE TEXTILE TRADES. 

Brushing, burling and mending, carbonizing, carding, combing, 
designing, drawing-in, dyeing, dusting, gilling, knitting, loom fixing, 
mule spinning, napping, picking, pressing, ring spinning, scouring, 
shearing, singeing, sorting, speck dyeing, spooling, steaming,twisting, 
warping, washing, weaving. 

• Public Trade Schools. 

introduction. 

Assuming that trade education is to become an integral part of our 
public school education; assuming also that it is to be the most 
expensive kind of education offered in our public school systems, 
there are several very important questions that must soon be settled, 
for effort to engraft upon public education comprehensive schemes of 
trade training must receive a serious handicap, for example, the 
following questions must soon receive serious consideration : 

1. From what source or through what methods shall adequately 
trained teachers be developed? 

2. What disposition is to be made of the product of trade schools ? 

3. How are the pupils to be retained in trade schools during the 
full number of years in the courses ? 

4. What is the actual money value of trade training ? 

The first question has been discussed at length elsewhere, which 
brings us to the question as to what disposition shall be made of the 
product of public trade schools. This promises to become a serious 
problem. That there is much interest shown by the administrators 
of these schools to get pupils almost immediately to a productive 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 35 

basis J and an even stronger desire to develop the productive side of 
the school, can not be denied. 

It has been pointed out that almost any municipality has an 
opportunity through its numerous department activities to develop 
its own trade-school pupils. The suggestion has been made that by 
applying the practical knowledge of the pupils to productive work 
in mechanical, electrical, wood working, prmting, and the various 
other departmental activities, considerable noncompetitive experi- 
ence could be gained. This method would result in a distinct advan- 
tage to both pupil and city, as well as to lessen the disadvantage of 
placing the pupils in direct competition with journeymen. 

It is to be regretted that there is apparently so little satisfaction in 
producing for the municipality, the directors of these schools being 
especially interested in measuring the productive side of the prospec- 
tive applicant to the skilled trades with that of the outside world. 

This attitude on the part of public-school administrators is the cause 
of another and perhaps more serious contention, one which may 
finally prove more disastrous to these schools than the making of a 
product in competition with the outside world — that is, the inability 
to retain pupils throughout their full term. 

Apropos of this question, an examination of the records of public 
trade schools discloses the startling information that a very con- 
siderably less than 40 per cent of those entering finish a full term. 
It is particularly noticeable in the Milwaukee Trade School, where the 
records show that only 20 per cent of those entering finish the fuU 
term. Even in the much-discussed Newark (N. J.) Technical School, 
which, however, is not a trade school in any sense, but which places 
so much emphasis on ''training for efiiciency" and ''the money value 
of industrial training," only 10 per cent of those entering finish the 
full term. 

This would seem to be an argument for raising the compulsory 
school age, as well as placing more emphasis on theory and shop 
practice during the first two years of a trade course, leaving speed and 
skill to be developed during the two latter years. 

If we are to judge the value of trade training by the average 
weekly earnings, as reported of a great number of recent graduates of 
public trade schools, then it is eminently fair to consider these 
schools failures, but inasmuch as all the publicly administered trade 
schools are still in their experimental stage; that their teacliei*s in 
comparison with other public-school teachers are inefficient, judgment 
should be suspended. Moreover, if three or four years of trade-school 
training promises for graduates of such schools only 50 per cent of 
the prevailing wage in specific trades, then there is much that is 
undesirable in the present development of such schools. 

Nothing is so unjustifiable in the training of the youth of the coun- 
try for trades as an attempt on the part of school authorities to get 
the pupils into wage-earning occupations as soon as the pupil develops 
a wage-earning capacity. Indeed, nothing could be done to better 
demonstrate the intent of those in charge of such schools to flood the 
market with only partially trained mechanics than to develop 
wage-earning capacity in trade-school j)upils during the first two years 
of their courses and then permit them to be exploited by unscrupulous 
employers. 



36 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

MILWAUKEE SCHOOL OF TRADES, MILWAUKEE, WIS. 

By an act of the State legislature, the Milwaukee School of Trades, 
which was founded on January 2, 1906, by a number of philanthropic 
men interested in industrial education, and under the uaspices of the 
Merchants' and Manufacturers' Association, of Milwaukee, was 
taken into the public-school system of this city on July 1, 1907, the 
date the act became effective. 

The Milwaukee School of Trades is maintained for the purpose of 
instructing young men in the practice and fundamental principles 
of the manufacturing and building trades. 

The school does not claim to turn out journeymen mechanics. Its 
aim is to instruct its students thoroughly, in as short a time as pos- 
sible, in all the fundamental principles and in tlie practice of the 
trade in question, so that they may, upon graduation, possess ability 
and confidence, and be of immediate practical value to their employers 
and receive a fair remuneration at once. Students who complete 
their course and receive their diploma should be at least on a par 
with the apprentice who has served four years under actual manu- 
facturing conditions. Speed and efficiency as journeymen should 
ver}^ soon follow. 

The school is under the immediate supervision of an advisory 
committee of the board of school directors, as provided in the legis- 
lative act. This committee is called ''The committee on trade 
schools." 

The school is maintained by the assessment of a special tax, not 
exceeding one-half mill, for the purpose of industrial education. 

The trades offered are pattern making, machinist, and tool making, 
carpentry and wood working, plumbing and gas fitting. The length 
of the course in each trade consists of 2 years of 52 weeks per year and 
44 hours per week, with the exception of the plumbing trade, which 
requires but one-half of the above time. School closes for legal holi- 
days only. It is the aim of the school to place the student in condi- 
tions as nearly as possible like those he will meet in actual practice. 
School hours are from 8 to 12 and from 1 to 5 daily except Saturday. 
Saturday session 8 to 12. Evening classes 7.30 to 9.30, on Monday, 
Tuesday, Thursday, and Friday nights of each week from October 1 
to April 30. 

The course of instruction in each trade includes the following five 
branches : 

1. Shop practice and trade lectures. 

2. Drawing: Mechanical drawing (isometric, working drawings, 
problems in design, architectural) ; freehand working drawing. 

3. Workshop mathematics (shop arithmetic, shop algebra, shop 
geometry, shop trigonometry). 

4. Shop inspection trips (in connection with each trip a carefully 
written report must be submitted). 

5. Practical talks and lectures on subjects connected with each trade 
and topics fundamental to all trades. 

Approximately one-fourth of the student's time during his course 
is devoted to academic instruction incidental to his trade and vitally 
essential to the first-class artisan whom the world needs and the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 37 

school is endeavoring to develop; the remaining three-fourths being 
spent in actual shop practice. 

A special feature of all the classroom work consists in adapting it 
as nearly as possible to the special requirements of the various trades. 
For instance, a different class of instruction is given in mechanical 
drawing and work-shop mathematics for each trade. 

A good working knowledge of elementary mathematics is highly 
essential to the successful mechanic and foreman, and a good course in 
this subject is given. While it is conceded that many other branches 
would prove of value to the students, it has not been deemed advis- 
able to introduce them into the actual work of the school, but the 
students are urged to supplement their practical work by as much 
outside reading and study as possible. Home work is required of all 
students. They are urged to subscribe for some good trade journal 
along the lines of their chosen trade and keep in close touch w^ith the 
latest and best methods of trade practice. It is not the purpose of the 
school that its graduates shall be merely skilled artisans; it is intended 
that they shall be not only trained and. efficient, but intelligent work- 
men, desirous of making the most out of themselves in their chosen 
vocation from its every point of view. 

It is also the aim of the school to secure instructors who are special- 
ists in their line, men who are interested in the work, and who can 
impart their knowledge and experience to apprentices. 

The class of work given to the students is carefully planned to be 
as nearly as possible of equal educational and practical value. Thus 
the student's interest is aroused and held. A high standard of work- 
manship is demanded from every student, and only those attaining 
it are permitted to graduate. 

The night classes are planned principally to supplement the 
experience of apprentices and workmen who are employed during 
the day at the trade in which they desire advancement under night 
instruction. The total day instruction of the two-year courses 
requires 4,464 hours. The total night instruction of one term of 
31 weeks at 8 hours per week amounts to 248 hours. Thus it is 
evident that none but students of exceptional ability and determma- 
tion could expect to serve the entire school apprenticeship in night 
classes only. The school does not advise students to attempt to 
learn a trade by this means. 

Students must supply their own drawing instruments and all 
drawing material, and are requested not to purchase them until 
properly advised by their instructor. 

In order to qualify for admission, students must be 16 years of 
age and be able to read and write in English and perform the funda- 
mental operations of arithmetic . Eighth-grade graduates are admit- 
ted without examination and are given preference over aj^plicants 
who have not had such preparation. Since it is required by law that 
a pupil be at least 16 years of age in order to be admitted, it is urged 
upon all boys desirous of entering that they take advantage of every 
opportunity offered by the public school system u}) to the age when 
tney are eligible for admission to this school. 

Boys who desire to attend the trade school, but who are below the 
age at which they may enter, will be allowed to pui-sue in the high 
schools, until they reach the trade school age, those studies whieli 
will be of most help to them in their future work in this school. 



38 * INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOK. 

The cost of maintaining this school is approximately $225 per year 
for each pupil. Thus in two years a boy receives an education cost- 
ing from $400 to $500. 

The school grants a diploma to each student completing the pre- 
scribed course in a satisfactory manner and passing the final exami- 
nation. 

Any student who completes his apprenticeship, as outlined in the 
regular course, in less than the scheduled time for his trade, may 
graduate and receive his diploma as soon as he passes all the require- 
ments incidental to that trade in a satisfactory manner. 

The school does not guarantee positions to its graduates. It has, 
however, many applications for them, and those attaining the best 
records, in pomt of application and ability, will be recommended for 
the best positions. It is not the policy of the school to recommend 
apprentices before they have successfully completed their course. 

PHILADELPHIA TRADES SCHOOL. 

As the result of an effort upon the part of the Master Builders' 
Exchange to establish a trades school in Philadelphia, there was 
opened in 1906 one of the first trades schools in the United States as 
an integral part of the public school system. 

The aim of the Philadelphia Trades School is the development of 
intelligent workingmen, and to this end an effort is made to stimulate 
an interest in and dignify the calling to which its pupils will go. The 
school does not aim to prepare its pupils for college and therefore does 
not in any way lap the usefulness of the present high or manual 
training high schools. The term is three years in length. The 
school is in session five days in the week from 9 a. m. to 3.30 p. m., 
with an intermission of 30 minutes at noon for lunch. The school 
year is coincident with that of the other public schools in Philadel- 
phia. The following trades are taught m the day school: Archi- 
tectural drafting, mechanical drafting, carpentry, pattern making, 
printing, and electrical construction. Of the 30 school hours in the 
w^eek the time is equally, divided between shop work and the study of 
English, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and drawing as they are 
related to trade work. In all the academic work an effort is made 
to present actual shop problems and trade literature. 

In English the course is similar to that of high schools in that its 
aim is to teach the proper expression of thought. It differs from high 
school English in that its work relates to technical subjects rather 
than to purely literary ones. In the second and third years instruc- 
tion is given in business correspondence, the preparation of proposals, 
bids, specifications, contracts, etc. Economics, industrial history, and 
commercial law are taught with an entirely practical aim. In mathe- 
matics, at the beginning of the school work, there is a general review of 
grammar-school arithmetic and in a short time algebra is taken up. 
In the second and third years geometry, trigonometry and booK- 
keeping are taught. A constant effort is made to present practical 
problems in all of the work in mathematics. 

In the drawing room the work is in keeping with the trade being 
studied. Drawing being the language of a mechanic, it is essential 
that every intelligent workingman be able to draw plans for his work 
and to read plans which have been prepared by some one else. At 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 39 

the beginning of the course every student, no matter what his trade, 
completes a series of elementary exercises in drawing. This work is 
completed in about five months and after that time the drawing in 
the different trades is special. For example: Carpenters make 
drawings of the different wood joints and advance to house plans. 
Electricians make plans for switchboards, house wiring, dynamo 
and motor installation. Excepting in the trades of architectural 
and mechanical drafting, the aim of the course in drawing is not to 
turn out skilled draftsmen. 

The instructors in all the trades are journeymen mechanics in their 
separate trades. The teachers of drawing, physics, and theory of 
electricity are practical men, while the teachers of English and 
mathematics are college-bred men who have specialized in the 
branches which they teach. 

The school is supported entirely from the regular school budget 
and is under the supervision of a principal who is appointed by the 
board of public education and is responsible directly to the superin- 
tendent of schools. 

There is no advisory board or committee of business men as is the 
case in some cities. 

None of the product of the school is sold, but it is the aim to have 
as much of the work as possible be on something of practical value. 

Work is therefore done in all of the departments not only for out 
own school, but also for other schools under the direction of the 
board of the public education. It is thought that the more nearly 
the trades schools can become the workshops for the boards of public 
education, the more nearly they will realize their ideal, arranging 
the exercises so that no pupil shall have more nor less than sufiicient 
repetition and keeping always in mind the fact that the boy and not 
the output of the shops is the aim of the schools. 

The per capita cost of running the school last year with an average 
enrollment of 186 and an average attendance of 161 was $90 58. 
The first class, 24 in number, was graduated from the Philadelphia 
Trades School in June, 1909. These young men, except three who 
are studying at the University of Pennsylvania and Drexel Institute, 
are now working at the trades which they studied in the school and 
are earning an average weekly wage of $10. 

In June, 1910, the second class, 28 in number, was graduated. 
Except two, who are temporarily out of employment, and two who 
are carrying on higher studies, these young men are working at an 
average weekly wage of $8 50. 

Owing, perhaps, primarily, to the general impression that hand 
work is degrading, one of the first difficulties presenting itself in the 
organization of the Philadelphia Trades School was that of gathering 
a student body. This was not a new problem as it was present when 
manual training was introduced in a special school. Nor is it to be 
wondered at now, when one considers the fact that all the teachers 
in the elementary schools have been trained to feel that a ])rofes- 
sional career is the acme of success in a boy's life. However, tis the 
work and purpose of the trades school have become known, applica- 
tions for adnussion have increased in number until now the building 
is filled to its capacity and another abandoned school buildiiig has 
been transferred as an annex to the trades school. 



40 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 

WISCONSIN STATE MINING TRADE SCHOOL, PLATTEVILLE, WIS. 

The specific purpose of the Wisconsin State Mining Trade School 
is 'Ho meet the need for well- trained, practical men to operate 
the mines of the State successfully and economically." The initial 
steps for establishing this school were taken by the mining men of 
the Wisconsin lead and zinc district, under authority of an act of the 
State legislature passed in 1907. Actual work began January 27, 
1908. The school receives its support from funds appropriated by 
the State legislature and from fees paid by nonresident students. 
The subjects to be taught are regulated by the act estabhshing the 
school, of which the following is a part : 

Section 392q. The course of instruction shall be two years in length, and shall 
embrace geology, mineralogy, chemistry, assaying, mining and mining surveying, and 
such other branches of practical and theoretical knowledge as will, in the opinion 
of the school board, conduce to the end of enabling such students of said school to 
obtain a knowledge of the science, art, and practice of mining and the application of 
machinery thereto. The dean of the college of engineering of the University of Wis- 
consin shall be consulted concerning the course of study, and the same and all modifi- 
cations thereof shall be approved by him. 

This school bears no relation to any other school. It is under the 
control and management of a board of three members, one of whom is 
the State superintendent of education and the remaining two are 
residents of the Wisconsin lead district, appointed by the governor of 
the State. In June, 1910, there were 23 students enrolled in the 
mining classes. Graduates from the eighth grade of a city school or 
pupils who have a diploma from a country school are admitted with- 
out examination. Other candidates for entrance must pass an exami- 
nation in arithmetic and English. There is no regulation as to age 
limit, and pupils may enter the school at any time during the school 
year. There is no arrangement with the local mining companies for 
giving employment to the pupils while attending school, but students 
frequently work Saturdays and Sundays in the lead and zinc mines. 

The subjects taught during the two years' course are: Physics, 
advanced arithmetic, plane geometry, solid geometry, algebra, plane 
trigonometry, chemistry, mining machinery, mining methods, mining 
economics, elementary mechanics, surveying, mechanics of materials, 
metallurgy, general geology, mining geology, hygiene, and first aid. 

The school year is divided into two terms of about 18 weeks each. 
In the first year of the course a total of 24 hours per week on an aver- 
age is devoted to theory, including time spent in study in school and 
16 hours per week to practice work. In the second year 23 hours per 
week are devoted to schoolroom work and 17 hours per week to 
practice work. During each winter a course of evening lectures cover- 
ing 20 hours is given on mining metallurgy and allied subjects. All 
students are required to attend these lectures and take notes. 

Instruction is given from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 1 to 5 p. m. daily, 
from Monday to Friday, inclusive. The length of the school year is 38 
weeks, the school opening September 7 and closing June 10. There 
is no summer term, but the pupils are expected to spend the summer 
vacation between the first and second school year working in some 
branch of the mining industry. 

The practice work is of a practical nature and is carried on in the 
basement of the school building, which is fitted up as a miniature 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 41 

mine, having all the machines, tools, and appurtenances of a mine 
in operation. 

The school has a mineralogical museum, which is primarily a work- 
ing collection of all the common varieties of minerals and rocks for 
student use. In addition, many fine exhibition specimens have been 
secured and special attention will be devoted to making a collection 
of th^yjFarious crystals found in southwestern Wisconsin. The col- 
lectioafcf lead and zinc ores from Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, 
belonging to the Tri-State Mining Association, has recently been 
secured for the use of the school. 

The school has seven teachers, secured either from scientific schools 
or from the mining industry. These teachers are responsible to the 
Wisconsin Mining Trade School board. There has been no difficulty 
in retaining teachers qualified to teach mining. 

No tuition fee is charged to residents of the State of Wisconsin. 
Nonresidents must pay $50 per year tuition fees. All students are 
required to pay $20 per year for materials and also to deposit $5 on 
entrance to cover cost of breakage or damage to apparatus. The 
students are required to furnish their own text and note books, 
drafting instruments, etc., and a charge of $2 for a diploma is made on 
graduation. The cost of materials used in shop practice during 
1909-10 was approximately $500. No marketable product is made 
by the school. 

WORCESTER TRADE SCHOOL. 

The Worcester Boys' Trade School was established in December, 
1908, under State and city ordinances, providing for independent 
industrial schools, and opened to pupils February 8, 1910. It is in 
charge of a board of trustees of nine members elected by the city 
council, three trustees being chosen annually for a term of three years. 

The school is intended for boys whose tendencies are toward active 
manual work rather than toward bookwork. It is not in any sense 
a preparatory school for higher institutions of learning, but opens out 
into the large field of mechanical activity. 

The aim of the school is to give a training equal to that of the shop 
apprenticeship and in addition to impart technical knowledge directly 
related to the trade taught. Beyond this it is also the aim of the 
school to give its pupils the most essential parts of a high-school 
education, so far as English, history, civics, drawing, science, and 
mathematics are concerned. 

Boys wishing to enter must have passed their fourteenth birthday. 
It is desirable that pupils should have completed the work of the 
grammar grades in the public schools, but other boys showing a 
distinct aptitude for the work may be admitted. 

Instruction is offered in these trades: Machine work, toolmaking, 
carpenter work, cabinetmaking, pattern making, and power-))lant 
engineering. At present there are 166 pupils in the above claques. 

Instruction is given, so far as possible, in groups. The classes, 
however, are small as com])ared with those of the ordinary sclund. 
Practice is entirely individual and no ])U])il is held back l)y his fellows, 
nor is he unduly hurried to kee]) up witli others. 

In general, practice is directly upon conmiercial work. Exercises 
of no commercial value are used in such cases as may be i'oun<l noc- 



42 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

essary to prevent excessive waste of valuable material. No exercise 
work is used under an;^ circumstances where the objective point of 
its commercial application is not constantly before the pupil. 

Alternate weeks are spent by each pupil in commercial shopwork 
and in study and recitation. During the recitation week another 
period of 10 hours is spent in what is known as shop instruction. 
This work is carried on in a section of the shop and consists of various 
methods of correlating the work of the commercial shop and the class 
room. In this department the younger boys are taught shop methods 
as far as possible in advance of coming in contact w^ith them in the 
shop. They are taught handwork, filing and scraping iron, and the 
making of various joints in woodwork. Later they are taught to lay 
out work and to use various measuring instruments and to plan work 
for the shop. All work going into the shop passes through the shop 
instruction rooms, where it is ''routed" by the pupils, subject, of 
course, to the approval of the instructor, so that its progress through 
the shop can be expedited and that no questions can arise later as to 
the order of operations. Still later these same boys make estimates 
and compute cost from the time cards on each job. 

To briefly review these studies it may be said that ''shop computa- 
tions, formulas, geometry, and study of triangles" comprise work 
in the application of only a few very simple mathem_atical processes 
to actual shop conditions. The work is very largely drill in practical 
problems, several thousand such problems having already been 
gathered. Commercial arithmetic and commercial geography deal 
with the transportation, purchase, and sale of materials and products. 
The study of geography is made directly from waybills loaned by 
the railroads. 

Natural science deals with the problems in mechanics, hydraulics, 
and electricity with which the workman in a shop may expect to 
come in contact. 

The cultural side of the boys' education is provided for in the 
work in English, history of commerce and invention, and good citi- 
zenship, though even in these subjects use is made of the practical 
application of each study so far as possible. In English, shop reports 
are made of each week's shopwork which are criticized by a shop- 
man, and a portion of their reading is taken from the technical papers 
of their trade. The history of commerce and invention is directed 
largely toward the rousing of the ambition of the young man by 
showing him the successes that have been made in the past by shop- 
trained men. Good citizenship is based largely on the experiences 
of the boy in the shop, and is made to grow out into the relations of 
the shop to the economics and government of the outside world. 

Drawing is taught from the start by the methods prevailing in draft- 
ing rooms and is intended to give the pupil, not skill as a draftsman, 
but facility in sketching and in reading drawings. Drawings for 
use in the shop are made in the drafting room by pupils who are 
either scheduled for shopwork or shop instruction. It is intended 
that drawings shall be made by one boy, checked by another, and 
used by others, in order that their inaccuracies may be brought 
forcibly to the attention of the draftsman. 

The daily sessions of the school are from 8 till IQ and 1 to 5, except 
Saturday afternoon. All legal hohdays are observed. The only 
regular vacation is the four weeks preceding Labor Day. During the 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 43 

shop week pupils who have had no lost time or demerits during 
the preceding two weeks are excused from attendance on Saturday 
morning. All courses cover a period of four years. 

The school is supported by appropriation made by the city council 
and also by reimbursement by the State on approval by the State 
board of education to the extent of one-half the cost of maintenance. 

COLUMBUS TRADE SCHOOL. 

The Columbus Trade School was established by the board of edu- 
cation to give boys who desire it a thorough training in one or more 
of the several mechanical trades, together with such academic sub- 
jects as will have a helpful bearing on the trade selected, or will help 
make them more intelligent and useful citizens. 

A modified form of the '^co-operative" plan in successful use in 
other places wdll be followed. Briefly, this plan is to divide the 
course into two parts — preparatory and cooperative. Boys who have 
finished the eighth grade will take one year of preparatory work; 
boys who have finished the sixth grade and are 14 years of age may 
be admitted to the school and take two years preparatory work. 
This preparatory work will consist of mechanical drawing, arith- 
metic, and shop work in wood and metal. The aim being to give the 
boy the preliminary training necessary to take hold of shop work to 
advantage; also to become somewhat familiar with the mechanical 
field, and so make an intelligent choice of the work he is to follow. 
This choice is an important step in the life of the boy and should be 
made with care. Records of the work and the characteristics of 
each boy will be kept, in order that any member of the faculty may 
better advise or suggest to the boy the line of work he is best fitted 
for. It is hoped that in this way an intelligent choice may be made, 
rather than leave it to chance, as is so often the case in life. 

At the end of the one or tw^o year preparatory course the boy 
will be expected to select the trade he wishes to follow. Boys who 
have shown that they are fitted to become good mechanics will 
be recommended to some of the leading local manufacturers as 
cooperative apprentices. They mil enter into an apprentice contract 
with the manufacturer, in which they agree to spend alternate 
weeks in the trade school and in the shop of the manufacturer for 
three years. During the summer vacations the boys will work in 
the shop full time, except for a vacation of two weeks. 

For the time spent in the shop of the manufacturer, the boy will 
receive regular apprentice wages. After the three years of coop- 
erative work the boy is to spend one year on full time in the shop to 
get the experience, without which no man is qualified to be consid- 
cvod a thorough mechanic. 

Those who finish the course will have received the equivalent (to 
them) of a high-school education, a thorough training in the trade 
selected, and will have earned during the time about $950. It is 
hoped that the manufacturers will offer in addition a bonus of $100 
to those who successfully complete the course. 

It is practically certain that a boy who completes this course will 
be sure of a good position, though of course the trade school can not 
guarantee a position. Manufacturers are looking for intelligent, 
independent, thorough mechanics. 



44 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

It must be understood that the boy must show abiHty along 
mechanical lines and an inclination to make good use of his oppor- 
tunities before the trade-school faculty will recommend him to a 
manufacturer for an apprenticeship. 

The wages proposed, though not formally adopted for the cooper- 
ative work as yet, are as follows : First year, 10 cents per hour; second 
year, 11 cents per hour; third year, 12| cents per hour; fourth year 
(first six months), 14 cents per hour; fourth year (second six months), 
15 cents per hour. At above rates the boy will be able to earn the 
following total amounts (this includes 10 weeks full time during each 
summer) : 

First year , $165. 00 

Second year 181. 50 

Third year 206. 25 

Fourth year 398. 75 

Total 951. 50 

This opportunity to secure a thorough training in one of the 
mechanical trades, get a good education in such a form as to be able 
to use it, and at the same time earn enough for expenses (particularly 
if the boy can live at home), is a chance that should be attractive to 
many boys. 

The courses offered at present are carpentry, pattern work, cabinet 
work, machine work, electrical work, and printing. It is expected 
that other lines of work will be added as the demand grows. 

The work in the printmg department will for the present be given 
wholly in the school. The commercial printing offices are so highly 
specialized that it is difficult to arrange cooperative work that will 

five the boys the desired training necessary for successful printers, 
t is hoped that some work on the cooperative plan may be arranged 
later. 

COOPERATIVE COURSE. 

Alternate weeks in school and coramercial shop. Periods 

First year: per week. 

English 3 

Civics 2 

Drawing 10 

Physics 3 

Physics laboratory 4 

Shop mathematics, including elementary algebra 5 

Reading mechanical papers 2 

Coordinator 1 

Study in school 5 

Total 35 

Second year: 

English 2 

History and gc ography 3 

Drawing 6 

Physics 2 

Physics laboratory 6 

Mathematics 4 

Mechanisms , 3 

Commercial geography 2 

Reading mechanical papers 1 

Coordinator 1 

Study in school 5 

Total 35 



INDUSTRIAL EDUOATIOIT. 45 

Periods 
Third year: per week. 

English 3 

Industrial history 2 

Drawing .^ — 6 

Physics 2 

Physical laboratory 6 

Mathematics 4 

Estimates and shop systems 3 

Mechanics 2 

Reading mechanical papers 1 

Coordinator 1 

Study in school 5 

Total 35 

Fourth year: 

Full time in commercial shop as fourth-year apprentice. 

MECHANICAL AND ELECTRICAL SUBJECTS. 

Coordinator. — The coordinator is a man from the school who visits 
the shop where the boy is at work, sees the problems the boy meets, 
and how the work he is doing fits into the whole plan of production. 
When the boy returns to the school the coordinator goes over the 
shopwork with him and explains any points that are not clear. 
The best way of solving the problems and the reason for the methods 
used are discussed. It is the duty of the coordinator to fit the school 
work to that of the shop and unite the two into a complete whole. 
The coordinator must take a personal interest in each boy and see 
that he gets proper work in school and shop; advise, encourage, and 
direct the boy in all his work. The coordinator does not interfere 
in the management of the shop or the methods of work. The boy, 
while in the shop, is under the shop management the same as any 
other employee. 

Mathematics. — The elementary processes will be reviewed with 
the object of making sure that the pupil can use them in the solution 
of such problems as are common in mechanical work. Such branches 
of mathematics as may be used in the practice of the various trades 
are taken up and taught by the solution of problems selected from 
practical work. The aim is to make mathematics a tool that can 
be used. 

Drawing. — Drawing is the language by which mechanical ideas 
are expressed. A workman who can not read and understand 
drawings is at a great disadvantage, and his chance for advance- 
ment is small. One who is going to make a success in mechanical 
work must understand the language. The instruction includes free- 
hand sketching, elementary mechanical drawing, projections, work- 
ing drawings, architectural drawings of ])lans, elevations, and 
details of construction; tracing and blue j^rinting. The work will be 
varied to suit the lines of work selected by the pupil. 

Carpentry. — This work will be planned to prepare the pupil to 
use the tools and methods in use by the best builders. The shop 
work is intended to teach the pupil to do careful, accurate work 
from drawings, and how to use tne ordinary car])enter's tools. The 
use of the steel square is given a good deal of attention. Joinery, 
framing, outside and inside finishing arc taken up in the shop and 
classroom. 



46 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

Cahinet work. — This is preceded by practice work in joinery and 
the proper use of tools. The work consists of furniture building and 
finishing. Selection of designs, choice of wood, rigid construction, 
finishing, and polishing are some of the points emphasized. 

Pattern worlc. — This work requires care, accuracy, and a knowledge 
of foundry and machine-shop methods. The fundamental principles 
are taught by examples. Draft, parting, shrinkage, contraction 
strains, allowance for finish, core prints, core boxes, finish of patterns, 
and methods of construction to best stand the rough handling in the 
foundry are subjects which are taken up in shop and classroom. 

Wood turning. — This work is taken up as a part of pattern work, 
and in connection with some of the cabinet work. Wood turning as 
a trade is not encouraged, because of its narrow field and limited 
demand. 

Metal worlc. — This course is to prepare a pupil to take up the work 
of a machinist in a commercial shop. Care and proper use of the 
standard hand and machine tools, proper grinding of cutting tools, 
planning the best way to do different kmds of work, difference in the 
working of different metals, proper mounting of work in machines, 
accurate calipering, finishing, and polishing are all emphasized. The 
various branches of metal work form one of the large fields for mechan- 
ical workers ; the field is growing. 

Electrical work. — This work is based on mathematics, physics, and 
drawing. The first year is therefore given up to these subjects and 
shop work. Calculation and installation of wire; selection, installa- 
tion, care, and operation of electrical machinery; location of trouble 
and its repair; estimates, contracts, and specifications are some of 
the subjects taken up. Electric lighting and telephones are studied 
by those wanting to take these lines. 

Printing. — Because of the highly specialized organization of the 
modern printing ofiice, the thorough printer is becoming scarce. The 
demand for good printers is growing. The thorough printer requires 
a wider range of iaformation than some other craftsmen. Words are 
his tools, and their use is his business; for this reason, spelling, 
etymology, grammar, rhetoric, and literature are the subjects that 
are given particular attention. Correct performance of the funda- 
mental operations is insisted on. In the matter of plain composition 
the pupil is thoroughly grounded; and from this in logical order are 
taken up tone, shape, and type harmony, and grouping of masses in 
display composition; harmony of colors, and imposition. In display 
work the aim is to teach accepted principles of typography, rather 
than simply practice the composition of selected specimens. But in 
the application of these principles, which the boy must make for 
himself, ample practice is afforded in the composition of the common 
commercial forms. 

ACADEMIC WORK. 

The various lines of academic work listed in the course of study are 
so taught as to be of direct benefit to the pupil in his after work, and to 
make him an intelligent, useful citizen. 

HOURS OF SCHOOL WORK. 

Preparatory, 8.30 a. m. to 11.45 a. m., and 12.45 p. m. to 2.30 p. m. 
Cooperative, 9.30 a. m. to 11.45 a. m., and 12.45 p. m. to 3.20 p. m. 



USTDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 47 

STATE TRADE SCHOOL, BRIDGEPORT, CONN. 

The Connecticut plan differs greatly from any that is followed by 
her sister States in the matter of industrial education.^ 

In 1909 the State legislature passed a law appropriating $100,000 
for the establishment and maintenance of two trade schools for two 
years. The purpose is to train all-round mechanics and to replace 
the apprenticeship system which has already declined. The matter 
was taken up with the various cities and subscription raised. One 
of the schools was located in Bridgeport and one in New Britain, 
both large manufacturing centers. The subscription, something about 
$10,000 in each city, was used to defray the expense of repairs, and 
the initial cost of equipment. 

The idea was to establish two experimental stations maintained 
by the State in which a solution of the problem could be worked out 
for the various other cities. 

The school at Bridgeport was opened September 1910, and the 
one at New Britain two months earlier. The instruction in each is 
practically the same. 

The ''ideal" in Bridgeport is to reproduce so far as possible the actual 
factory conditions and it was with this end m view that the general 
organization was decided upon. The only entrance requirements are 
that a student be fourteen years of age. All the teachers must be 
fully trained and skilled mechanics. The hours are from 8 a. m. to 
6 p. m., and all work instead of being based on models and exercises 
consists of actual commercial work taken from factories. The idea 
of this was to make it necessary for the students to maintain actual 
trade standards of workmanship. 

Every kind of opportunity is offered in this school system The 
departments consist of day school, continuation school, half-time 
scnool, vacation school, ancl evening school 

Day school operates 9 hours a day, 5^ days a week, 52 weeks a 
year, allowing each teacher and each student two weeks' vacation. 
Six and one-half hours a day are given to actual shop work in the 
trade pursuit selected and 2^ hours to academic training. 

Students may enter school any day in the year and may leave at 
any time. Graduation depends upon, for the boys, the successful 
completion of four thousand eight hundred 60-minute hours of 
instruction, and for the girls three thousand six hundred. 

Courses are offered in the trades of carpentry, cabinetmaking, 
pattern making, machine-shop practice, tool making, die making, 
drafting, and printing. 

The foreman in chaise of each department is the general instructor 
in the school unit. The carpenter teaches the shopwork, drafting, 
and mathematics and gives the daily shop lecture connected with 
his department, and so with the other trades. 

Academic work consists of drafting, trade mathematics, shop 
lectures, applied science, and mechanics. 

In all, however, the aim is to actually reproduce trade conditions. 
This is done in various ways. The boj^s' schools are located in actual 
factory buildings. 

>ThIs school Is at present undergoing a searching inquiry as to courses and methods of instruction by 
educators, trade unionists, and the public 



48 IKDUSTRIAX. EDUCATION". 

The printing department does a great part of the State work and 
some jobbing work; the machine department makes machines for 
the market orders and jigs and fixtures for factories; the pattern 
department provides the machine department with necessary pat- 
terns, and also takes in outside orders, while the carpentry depart- 
ment has almost completed the building of a $5,500 house for a 
local contractor. 

Methods employed in all of the school's practical work are as 
follows : 

A job is taken and figured upon in the terms of a journeyman's 
time of production and estimated at the regular journeyman rating 
on that line of work. It is then made by the students, who have to 
take account of the cost of material, labor, and overhead. In this 
way they get the actual trade contract and appreciation for produc- 
tion. 

Then, on the other hand, each trade is fully analyzed on a basis of 
the operations involved and the student's record checked so as to 
insure his broad training. 

Regular job tickets and cards are kept in each department on all 
work and turned into the ofiice as regular records of jobs. On each 
time ticket estimates are given and the student's efficiency rating 
may be found. If he meets his estimate a bonus of 10 per cent on 
his time is given him and applied on his course. 

As he approaches graduation his time is estimated on a journeyman 
basis gradually, so that his journeyman rating of efficiency may be 
found accurately in terms of percentage. 

The continuation school consists of courses offered to apprentices 
in the trade. They spend four hours a week at the school receiving 
instruction in mathematics and drafting related to their trade. The 
teacher then follows them up in the factory, so as to better relate 
their instruction to their needs. 

The half-time course may be entered on the completion of the first 
year's training. The student may enter the actual trade in a factory 
and work one week, attending school the alternate week. He is paired 
off with a '^ running mate" who alternates weekly with him. While 
in the factory the student is a regular apprentice, and while in school 
he is a regular day student. While at work he is still under the 
supervision of the school, and his trade work is open to the advisory 
direction of the department. 

Vacation courses are offered during July and August and are open 
to regular city-school students of 12 years or over. 

Evening school is in operation six nights a week, forty weeks a year. 
This course is open to any person who is employed, and the special 
individual needs of each student are provided for. 

In the entire work, however, it has been impossible to provide 
commensurately for the demand. During the past winter there were 
450 on the waiting list, while it was impossible to in any way meet 
the demand for the vacation school even operating on half-time 
alternating basis. 

Following is a report of the actual plant cost of operating the 
Bridgeport school, which is of great value in showing the earnings as 
appHed to the expenditures: 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 49 

THE YONKERS TRADE SCHOOL. 

The Yonkers Trade School, which is a publicly administered trade 
school, was made possible by a gift from the late Ervin Saunders, of 
Yonkers, N. Y., and was established in January, 1910. The gift 
includes the buildings and equipment of all the trade-school shops. 

The school is a part of the public-school system of Yonkers. Its 
principals and instructors are employed by the board of education, 
and its courses are free of charge to all residents of the city of Yonkers. 
Nonresidents are charged a tuition fee of $75 per year. 

The requirements for admission are the same as now prevailing 
under the New York State law for obtaining a ''work certificate," 
that the applicant shall be at least 14 years of age and shall have 
completed the requisite number of hours or the equivalent of such in 
the grade work of the elementary schools. While theoretically the 
trade department is open to boys 14 years of age, in practice very few 
boys under 16 are enrolled. 

To insure the pupil's efficiency in the shop and proficiency in the 
class, the school is open from 8.30 a. m. until 3.30 p. m. A minimum 
of 1,200 hours constitutes the year's work. An attendance of two 
years, or 2,400 hours, is the requisite for the granting of the certifi- 
cate issued by the State board of education. 

Pupils are placed in classes according to their choice of a trade, and 
the major portion of their time is devoted to shop work. 

The academic curriculum is made an adjunct of the shop work and 
is so arranged that individual instruction is possible; furthermore, 
each class is grouped in such a manner that no pupil is required to 
repeat work which he has satisfactorily completed in any other 
school, whether of grammar of high-school grade. 

In addition to shop work, drawing, and mathematics, each pupil 
is required to undertake academic work in the following subjects: 
Commercial and industrial geography. United States history and 
civics, business correspondence, public and personal hygiene, English, 
including a study of trade and technical literature. 

The Yonkers School, unlike other trade schools, has a vocational 
department. This vocational department covers two years of study 
and is intended to give pupils an opportunity to discover their apti- 
tude for trade education. The last two years are spent in the trade- 
school department, where an intense study of trades along definite 
lines are made, the purpose of which is to give the pupil two years of 
training, which will fit nim to go at once into gainful occupation. 

All the teachers are practical tradesmen and are required to take a 
normal course under the direction of the principal of the training 
school for teachers. 

The trades taught are pattern making, plumbing, carpentry, 
cabinetmaking, steam engineering, electrical work, printing, machine- 
shop practice, which includes architectural drawing and mechanical 
drawing. 

The total number of pupils enrolled during the years 1911-1912 
was 161; total number of teachers, 8. 

59608°— S. Doc. 936, 62-2 i 



50 industkial education. 

Cooperative Schools. 

The purpose of this discussion is to outhne the present status of 
what is becoming generally considered the most practical plan for 
instruction in the trades, or, in other words, cooperative part-time 
schools. 

While cooperative schools differ materially in their operations, 
inasmuch as their cooperation is effected in various ways, the purpose 
remains the same. Almost every locality having a scheme of coop- 
erative education has planned it to meet the needs of that particular 
locality. These schools are conducted for the instruction of appren- 
tices under an agreement, usually between the public schools and the 
employing establishments, the latter usually making it mandatory 
on the part of apprentices to attend such schools. 

Cooperative Half-Time Schools. 

While cooperative schools differ materially , in their operations, 
one group is quite distinct. This is the half-time school, in which 
the pupil is in the school half the time and in the employer's shop the 
other half. The other schools — part-time schools — provide for only 
short periods of instruction each day or week, or provide instruction 
for a stated number of weeks in the year; all, however, under a 
cooperative arrangement. 

The most popular scheme for cooperative half-time schools is one 
in which the apprentices spend alternate weeks in the school and in 
the shop, one boy being in the school while the other is in the shop. 
This plan requires two boys to each job. In this alternating system 
the school work is clasely correlated with that of the shop and com- 
prehends more or less cultural work, such as industrial geography, 
industrial history, chemistry of materials, shop physics, civics, shop 
and business English. 

It is becoming common practice in many of these schools to defer 
the shop work until the beginning of the second year of the boy's 
apprenticeship, all of the first year being devoted to school work, 
while the other two, three, or four years are devoted to the half-time 
plan. 

Another most interesting, as well as invaluable, scheme in con- 
nection with the cooperative half-time school is the introduction of 
the ''shop coordinator," whose functions are to coordinate the 
practice in the shop with the instruction in the school by teaching the 
apprentices one week in the school and the next week in the shop, 
the theory being that the ''shop coordinators" must be practical 
men, understanding thoroughly the practical as well as the theoretical 
side of the trade. 

Since all of the cooperative half-time schools throughout the 
country are of such recent origin, and in view of the fact that none of 
the schools giving a four-years' course has yet graduated apprentices 
from its full course, it is extremely difficult to describe the many actual 
advantages of cooperative schools. 

It is generally conceded by the advocates, supporters, and directors 
of this plan of education that the rapidity with which apprentices have 
developed under it shows marked advantages over the old-time 
methoa of apprenticeships. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 51 

BEVERLY COOPERATIVE SCHOOL. 

Probably the most noteworthy example of the cooperative half- 
time plan is the Beverly-United Shoe Machinery Co. School. This 
school was started in September, 1909, and at present has 61 appren- 
tices. It differs from almost every other school of a cooperative 
nature inasmuch as all the apprentices are employed by the United 
Shoe Machinery Co., of Beverly, Mass. Nearly all of the other 
cooperative schools have apprentices in several of the employing 
establishments in the localities where the schools have been estab- 
lished. 

The aim of the Beverly school is to give elementary instruction in 
the machinist trade to any boy who can qualify for entrance; that 
is, boys having completed the sixth-grade school work. During 
the year the public-scnool side of this cooperative plan purposes to 
give the boy theoretic instruction during its session of 50 weeks, or 
from Aug. 1 to July 16. 

The plan is as follows: One week half the boys are in the factory; 
the next week, accompanied by the shop coordinator, the same boys 
spend 38| hours in school (from Monday to Friday), while the boys 
who have been in the school the preceding week are at work in the 
shop under the instruction of a dfltierent shop coordinator or teacher. 

The theoretical work done at the public school comprehends 
mstructoin in shop mathematics, mechanical drawing, blue-print 
reading, mechanics and industrial chemistry, civics and industrial 
economics, artihmetic, shop and business English. 

The practical side of this plan or rather the shop side, uses no so- 
called '^ practice material." The apprentices are employed en actual 
productive work, making machine parts from castings brought 
directly from the foundry of the United Shoe Machinery Co. to the 
machine shop. 

The boys are constantly under the direction of the shop coordinator 
and each boy performs several different operations upon a casting 
during his week in the shop. The same tests are made of the work 
of the boy by the company's inspector that are made of all other 
work, and if accepted, the work passes into the general stock of the 
company. 

The apprentices are given practical and individual instruction by 
the coordinators on all the latest types of machine tools contained 
in a modern machine shop. The practice shop, where instruction is 
given to the boys, has been especially equipped for that purpose at 
a cost of nearly $50,000 and is set aside for the instruction of appren- 
tices to the machinist trade. 

Aside from the two coordinators mentioned, there are shop assistants 
or assistant instructors who give their entire time to the instruction 
of the apprentices in the shops. The plan of payment for the prockic- 
tive side of this cooperative scheme is as follows: 

The company keeps a separate account for the practice shop, 
debits it with all cost of maintenance, and credits it with the full 
value of all the products accepted. Half the piece price is paid to 
the boy; the other half goes to maintain the practice shop; or, in 
other words, the boy is paid for half of his actual earning capacity. 

The expenses of this school are borne jointly by the public-school 
authorities and the United Shoe Machinery Co. The high-school 



52 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

building is used for school work. The laboratories of the Mechanic 
Arts High School furnish the accommodations for the theoretical side 
of the plan. 

The public-school authorities furnish three teachers, while the com- 
pany furnishes two for the school instruction. Half the salaries of 
the two shop coordinators are paid from school funds, the other half 
being paid by the company. The salaries of the pubhc-school teach- 
ers are paid by the public-school authorities. 

FITCHBURG COOPERATIVE SCHOOL. 

The Fitchburg (Mass.) High School's cooperative industrial course 
differs from the Beverly cooperative School in that the latter aims to 
give an elementary course of instruction to apprentices, while the 
Fitchburg school strives to give boys of high-school age an opportunity 
to learn a trade and at the same time continue their school training. 

The Fitchburg school was inaugurated in September, 1908, a year 
earlier than the Beverly school. The FitcLbarg Iron Workers' Asso- 
ciation, an association of manufacturers, was instrumental in the 
establishment of this plan. The Fitchburg school differs from the 
Beverly school, inasmuch as the apprentices attending the former 
are employed by the several machine-tool manufacturing establish- 
ments of that city, instead of by one large corporation. Again it 
differs from the Beverly plan, for the reason that the apprentices 
must spend the entire first year of their course in the high school. 

The first two months of the second year, or during July and August, 
the apprentices serve a probationary period in the shops of their 
prospective employers. 

SHOPWORK. 

While there is no official scheme of coordination by instructors in 
the Fitchburg plan, there is an understanding between the school 
instructors and the shop foremen that apprentices are to be advanced 
as rapidly in the shoppractice work as their ability to progress 
permits. 

During the two months of the probationary period the apprentice is 
thoroughly tried for his fitness and adaptability for the trade. He 
is privileged to consult with his school instructor during this period, 
and if the instructor and the employer believe it is to the advantage 
of the boy and the employer to learn, the machinist trade, he then 
becomes regularly indentured to the employer. 

This scheme is carried on with the employers by prospective ap- 
prentices in the several shops until the 1st of September, when the 
boys are divided into pairs. At this point the actual cooperation 
begins by each boy spending a week in the shop and the alternating 
week in the school. From Monday to Friday one boy spends the 
entire day in the factory and the other attends school from 8 to 1 
o'clock. 

In addition to the school work, three hours per week of home study 
are required of each boy during his school week. On Saturday both 
boys are at work in the factory in order that the boy who has been in 
school during the week may sufficiently acquaint himself with the 
work his alternate has been doing to take it up and carry it on the 
following week, while his alternate is in school. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 53 

The apprentices are at work in the shop during all school vacation 
periods, with the exception of a two-weeks' leave of absence in the 
summer. 

SCHOOL WORK. 

The theoretic side of the plan, which is divided into 40-minute 
periods and which covers the entire term of the apprenticeship, is as 
follows: 

First year. — The subjects taught in the first year are: English and 
current events, five periods; arithmetic, five periods; algebra, five 
periods; free-hand mechanical drawing (tables and simple shop 
problems) with bench work, eight periods. The school studies relate 
closely to shopwork. 

The laboratory work which the pupil receives during the first year 
consists of instruction in the operations of lathes, planers, drilling 
machines, with bench and floor work and such other machine work as 
pertains to the particular branch of machine-shop practice as will be 
applicable to the particular branch of the machine industry in which 
the apprentice expects to be employed. This laboratory practice is 
continued throughout the entire four years of the cooperative school 
course. 

Second year. — English, ^ve periods; shop mathematics, five periods; 
physics, four periods ; civics, two periods ; mechanism of machines, five 
periods.; free-hand and mechanical drawing, six periods. 

Third year. — English, five periods ; shop mathematics, five periods ; 
chemistry, four periods; physics, four periods; mechanism of macliines, 
five periods; first aid to the injured, one period; free-hand and 
mechanical drawing, six periods. 

Fourth year. — English, five periods; commercial geography and 
business methods, two periods; shop mathematics, four periods; 
mechanism of machines, four periods ; physics, electricity and heat, 
four periods ; chemistry, six periods ; free-hand and mechanical draw- 
ing, nve periods. 

The above studies are closely correlated with the shopwork. The 
English studies include forms of business papers and business P]nglish. 
A close study of shop terms and their significance is an important 
feature of the school work. Industrial history includes the study of 
daily happenings in the industrial world, the history of the iron 
industry, the factory system, new inventions, and a close study of 
mechanical journals. 

Shop mathematics deals with problems on cutting speeds and 
feeds, gearing, strength of materials, and general cost finding. Mech- 
anism includes a study of the construction and use of the various 
machine-tool parts. Physics becomes a study of the hiws under- 
lying mechanics; the study of working examples is em])hasized. 
Chemistry takes up the nature and qualities of metals and salts, and 
tests that can be ordinarily applied to fractured metals, hardening, 
tempering, and improving processes. 

Commercial geography includes the study of the source of supplies 
for various industries, methods of transportation, cost of materials, 
railway systems, waterways, etc. - 

There are three instructors in the school; one teaches sliop and 
business P^nglish, another the sciences, and the third teaches shop 
methods and operations and industrial geography. 



54 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 



SUMMATION. 



The preceding descriptive analysis purposes to show in consider- 
able detail the workings of two types of half-time schools, i. e., the 
elementary and the secondary type, the former for boys of about 14 
years of age and the latter for boys who have reached the age of 16. 
This analysis is sufficient to show the general scheme adopted by 
nearly all the half-time schools established within the past four years. 

Table I shows the principal schools which have adopted a coop- 
erative half-time plan, and gives a survey of the principal data 
concerning them: 

Table I. — Cooperative half -time schools. 



Name of school and location. 


Year of 
estab- 
lish- 
ment. 


Mini- 
mum 
age for 

en- 
trance. 


Years 

in 
course. 


Weeks 

of 
school 

in 
year. 


Hours 

of 
school 
attend- 
ance 
per 
week. 


Pupils 

entering 

must have 

passed — 


Num- 
ber of 
pupils 

in 
course. 


Fitchburg High School, Fitchburg, Mass. . 

Beverly-United Shoe Machinery Co., 

Beverly, Mass. 
Technical High School, Providence, R. I . 

Freeport High School, Freeport, 111 

Lewis Institute, Chicago, 111 . . 


1908 

1909 

1910 

1909 
1909 
1910 


16 

14 

14 

15 
16 
16 


4 

2 

4 

4 
2 
4 


20 

25 

20 

20 
24 
48 


23J 

381 

23i 

26J 

40 

24 


Grammar 

school. 
Sixth 

grade. 
Grammar 

school. 

. . -do 

...do 

Eighth 

grade. 


80 

66 

42 

25 
68 


Cincinnati High School, Cincinnati, Ohio. 


175 



In the schools in Fitchburg, Mass., Providence, R. I., and Freeport, 111., the first year of the course is 
spent entirely in the school, the remaining three years are devoted to the half-time plan. 

COOPERATIVE PART-TIME SCHOOLS. 

Cooperative schools may be half time, part time, or continuation; 
usually the part-time school is a continuation school, but not neces- 
sarily so. Of the latter types, the part-time plan is one in which 
apprentices work regular hours in the establishments where they 
are employed except for a few hours a week, when they are excused 
from shopwork to attend school. 

There is, however, another t3rpe of the part-time school which 
differs materially, inasmuch as the apprentice spends not a part of 
a day a week, but a few weeks of the school year in theoric study of 
his trade. 

The instruction in the part-time school is usually in public schools, 
but is becoming very common in philanthropic as well as Y. M. C. A. 
schools. The usual studies such as English, spelling and elementary 
industrial science, with shop arithmetic and mechanical drawing 
are provided. 



CINCINNATI COOPERATIVE CONTINUATION SCHOqL. 

The Cincinnati Cooperative Continuation School is without doubt 
the leading exponent of the part-time cooperative school. It is 
distinctively a creation of Cincinnatians. It was established in 
1909 for the purpose of permitting boys at work in machine shops 
operated by members of the .Cincinnati Metal Trades Association 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 55 

to continue their studies, especially such studies as are closely con- 
nected with machine-shop practice, the aim being to coordinate 
with the training received in the shop the academic studies in school, 
and to increase the intellectual and industrial efficiency of the boys. 

The entire expense of the school is borne by the board of educa- 
tion and amounts to about $5,000 a year. It includes the salaries 
of three of the teachers and all the supplies and equipment. There 
are also about 18 men on the faculty who lecture to the classes 
without pay. 

Some magnitude of the undertaking can be gleaned from the fact 
that there are approximately 250 apprentices in the school. There 
is a considerable waiting list, and pupils are accepted whenever 
there is a vacancy. The only requirement for entrance is that the 
apprentices shall have a common-school education. 

Any apprentice 16 years of age or over, whose employer will give 
him time to attend, is accepted in the school. Apprentices are not 
compelled to attend by their employers, but most of the shops make 
employment contingent upon attendance, which, of course, amounts 
to compulsion. The general plan is as follows: 

Each apprentice spends four hours per week in school and the 
remainder of the week at work in the shop of his employer. It is 
proposed throughout the four years to devote 45 minutes of the time 
each week to mathematics, 45 to science, IJ hours to the theory of 
shop practice, 45 minutes to general culture, and 15 minutes to 
physical culture. The following are the subjects taught in the four 
years' course: 

First year. — Shop arithmetic, spelling, reading, composition, read- 
ing blue prints, drawing, geographical relations of the shop materials, 
and civics. 

Second year. — Objective geometry; science — iron, its manufacture 
and founding; blue prints, mechanical and free-hand drawing; shop 
practice — shop conventionalities and necessities; civics and the read- 
mg of the lives of the world's improvers. 

Third year. — Geometry and algebra, physics, shop practice, fore- 
man's question box, drawing, civics, and economic history of lit- 
erature. 

Fourth year. — Trigonometry and applied mathematics ; shop chem- 
istry; shop practice — visiting industrial plants and discussing obser- 
vations, especially of economy and waste; culture — the man as a 
wage earner and citizen; debates. 

The school aims to accept the conditions presented by the trade and 
to accommodate itself to those conditions without a thought along 
the line of changing the conditions. This necessitates some comi)ro- 
mises, as the shop can not send a boy to the class in which the instructor 
would like to place him, in some instances, and it has compelled the 
school to find a course of study which is flexible. 

The apprentices from the machine and pattern-making departments 
are treated as one and the same type, and are divided into nine sec- 
tions, each section spending a half day each week in the school for 52 
weeks a jear and for a period of four years. 

The nme classes are arranged beginning on Monday afternoon and 
finishing on Friday afternoon, so that the less preptired pu])il conies 
at the beginning oif the week and the more advanced, or in some cases 
the bigger apprentices, attend the latter ])art of the week. The fii-st 
effort of the school is directed to the holding of the appreniice to the 



56 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 



trade until lie becomes accustomed to the environment and imbued 
with the possibilities which are offered. 

Free-hand sketching, mechanical drawing and the reading of 
drawings are carried out on a scale of completeness commensurate 
with their use in the shops, the greatest amount of time and energy 
being placed on the making of free-hand and mechanical sketches to 
scale on rectangular and isometric coordinate paper. The mechanic 
must talk with his pencil and the apprentices are all taught to do 
lots of that kind of talking. 

The manufacturers cooperating with the school are enthusiastic 
in their praises of its work. Instead of a decreasing output for the 
apprentices who spend four hours per week in school, it is found that 
in many cases the output has actually increased. The foremen of the 
shops, where apprentices are employed, have entered into hearty 
cooperation with the school and its director. 

Cleveland Cooperative Part-time School. 

The most recent development in cooperative part-time apprentice- 
ship schools is one established jointly by the Cleveland, Ohio, manu- 
facturers and the local Young Men's Christian Association, January 
27, 1912. The purpose of the school is to give instruction to appren- 
tices in the various mechanical establishments of the city in an effort 
to aid them in becoming skilled mechanics. 

The academic studies consist of drawing, blue-print reading, and 
the usual kindred subjects. The class work is to be divided between 
two groups of apprentices, those who need individual instruction, as 
separate units, and those whose work can be adapted to instruction 
in large classes. Already five classes, with about 20 apprentices in 
each, are in operation. The course covers four years of 40 weeks 
each year, four hours each week. 

An interesting feature of this part-time scheme is that the tuition 
fee of $20 per year or $80 for the complete course, is paid by the 
employer, in addition to the payment of regular wages to the appren- 
tices while in school. 

Fifteen representative manufacturing establishments have joined 
in this scheme. An advisory committee of experienced, practical 
men, who are to have general direction of the experiment, has been 
chosen from the Cleveland manufacturers. 

In Table II are shown the philanthropic, as well as public schools, 
which have recently offered part-time instruction to apprentices in 
the respective cities : 

Table II. — Cooperative part-time schools. 



Name of school and location. 



Cincinnati Continuation School, Cincinnati, Ohio 

Franklin Union, Boston, Mass 

David Ranken, jr., School, St. Louis, Mo 

Mechanics' Institute, Rochester, N. Y 

State Trade School, Bridgeport, Conn 

Horace Mann School, Chicago, Ul 

James Otis School, Chicago, 111 



Year 

of 
estab- 
lish- 
ment. 



Mini- 
mum 
age for 

en- 
trance. 



1909 
1909 
1910 
1909 
1910 
1907 
1907 







Hours 




Weeks 


of 


Years 


of 


school 


m 


school 


attend- 


course. 


in 


ance 




year. 


per 
week. 


4 


48 


4 


2 


24 


4 


2 


46 


7 


3 


36 


4i 


2 


35 


4 


4 


12 


27i 


4 


12 


25i 



Num- 
ber of 
pupils 

in 
course 



250 
68 
30 
98 
60 
90 

152 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIT. 57 

APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS. 

The establishment of schools by large corporations to give the 
academic training needed by the apprentices who are receiving their 
trade training in the employer's works, form part of a movement to 
restore the old apprenticeship system with such modifications as 
modern conditions make necessary. While the old time apprentice- 
ship system was never formally given up, as a matter of fact, it almost 
entirely disappeared during the latter part of the last century. Many 
large corporations refused to take apprentices, but in cases where they 
were taken there was a strong tendency to use the apprentice as an 
operator long before he was thoroughly famihar with the practices 
and processes of his trade. In consequence, the average apprentice 
finished his trade poorly equipped to enter industry as a journeyman. 

As a result of this condition employers have found themselves 
confronted with a scarcity of skilled workers, and this condition 
seriously hampers industrial enterprise. 

However, within the last decade they have realized that the situa- 
tion is grave and have begun the establishment of apprenticeship 
schools in order to secure a sufficient force of skilled workers, super- 
visors, and foremen, rather than to continue the policy of extreme 
specialization which was breaking down the industrial supremacy of 
this country. 

Too much credit can not be given the large railroad corporations 
for the introduction of the modern apprenticeship system. They 
have begun the training of boys by indenturing them for a period of 
years with the sole object in view of giving them a complete, prac- 
tical training, as well as instruction in mathematics, mechanical 
drawing, and elementary physics, necessary for the advancement in 
their trade. 

In most schools the term of indenture is four years, and boys are 
required to attend school a specified number of hours during certain 
days of each week throughout the period of indenture. At the com- 
pletion of the apprenticeship term, the boys are generally given their 
tools and a bonus varying from $50 to $150. The rate of pay is grad- 
ually becoming standardized in each shop according to the trade, 
and increased usually every six months. 

In the greater number of railroad schools, as well as other emplov- 
ing establishments, school is in session five or six days of the week; 
but each boy usually attends two days only. This arrangement is 
made to prevent serious interference with shop organization resulting 
from the taking off of a large number of boys from a given department 
at the same time. 

Few textbooks are used and the instruction is given mainly from 
lesson sheets prepared by the instructors in the several trades, 
closely correlating with the work in the shops performed by the 
boys when at gainful occupation. 

In addition to the school instructor, many railroad schools employ 
one or more shop instructors who devote their entire time to instruct- 
ing the boys in the performance of the operations in their several 
trades while in the shop, or supervising their rotation at various and 
increasingly important practices and processes of their trade. 

For the most part these schools are situated at the employers' 
woiks. Attendance is compulsory; the time spent in school is paid 
for at the same rate as the working time. 



58 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

School instruction bears close relation to shop practice, each and 
every school subject being taught with that particular reference, 
thus closely correlating the trade problems with the school instruc- 
tion. 

The school instructor is usually a man who has graduated from the 
working force, having been selected because of his thorough knowl- 
edge and familiarity with the trade, as well as a keen insight into 
modern methods applicable to the trade. 

A survey of the schools established by the large railroad systems 
extendmg from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Canadian 
border to the Gulf of Mexico, disclose the interesting fact that courses 
for apprentices in 22 specific trades have been established since 1905. 

The total number of pupils in these schools, and other apprentice- 
ship schools established by manufacturing concerns throughout the 
United States, are 3,946. 

The total number, of machinist apprentices in these schools is 
2,865, or about 72 per cent of the entire number of pupils; the aver- 
age entrance age, 16 years; the average number of years in the course, 
4; and the average number of weeks in the course, 42. 

The courses of instruction in these schools include, exclusive of 
practice work, such subjects as algebra, arithmetic, chemistry, 
geometry, English, physics, mechanism, mechanics (strength of 
materials), free-hand drawing, mechanical drawing, machine design, 
elementary electricity, mensuration, trigonometry, hydraulics, ther- 
modynamics, shop mathematics, and bookkeeping. 

The railroads which have established schools on their systems 
throughout the country are: New York Central; Santa Fe; Grand 
Trunk; Erie; Pennsylvania; Union Pacific; Delaware, Lackawanna 
& Western; Delaware & Hudson; Central Railroad of New Jersey; 
Chicago Great Western; Pere Marquette; St. Louis & San Francisco; 
Southern; Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton; and Alabama Great 
Southern. 

The location of schools on the New York Central system is as fol- 
lows: Beech Grove, Ind.; CoUinwood, Ohio; Depew, N. Y. ; East 
Buffalo, N. Y.; Elkhart, Ind.; Jackson, Mich.; McKees Rocks, Pa.; 
Oswego, N. Y. ; West Albany, N. Y. 

The location of schools on the Santa Fe is as follows: Topeka, 
Kans.; Albuquerque, N. Mex. ; Amarillo, Tex.; Wellington, Kans.; 
Argentine, Kans.; Chanute, Kans.; Arkansas City, Kans.; Newton, 
Kans.; Bakersfield, Cal.; Needles, Cal.; Winslow, Ariz.; Cleburne, 
Tex.; Clovis, N. Mex.; San Marcial, N. Mex.; Galveston, Tex. ; Sils- 
bee, Tex.; Somerville, Tex. ; Temple, Tex.; La Junta, Colo.; Pueblo, 
Colo.; Raton, N. Mex.; Richmond, Cal.; San Bernardino, Cal.; Fort 
Madison, Iowa. 

The location of schools on the Grand Trunk is as follows: Battle 
Creek, Mich. ; Saint Albans, Vt. 

The location of schools on the Erie is as follows: Dunmore, Pa.; 
Hornell, N. Y. ; Meadville, Pa.; Port Jervis, N. Y. ; Susquehanna, 
Pa. 

The location of schools on the Pennsylvania is as follows : Altoona, 
Pa. (The railroad company cooperates with the extension depart- 
ment of the Pennsylvania State College.) 

The location of schools on the Union Pacific is as follows: Omaha, 
Nebr.; Cheyenne, Wyo. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 59 

The location of schools on the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western 
is as follows: Scranton, Pa.; Kingsland, N. J.; East Buffalo, N. Y. 

The location of schools on the Delaware & Hudson is as follows : 
Carbondale, Pa.; Green Island, N. Y. ; Oneonta, N. Y. 

The Central Railroad of New Jersey maintains a school at Eliza- 
bethport, N. J. 

The Chicago & Great Western maintains only one school, and that 
is at Oelwein, Iowa. 

The Southern Railway has established schools at Spencer, N. C. ; 
Knoxville, Term.; Birmingham, Ala.; and Atlanta, Ga. 

The Cincinnati, Hamilton & Dayton has one school, located at 
Lima, Ohio; and the Alabama Great Southern has established a 
school at Birmingham, Ala. 

Establishments other than railroad corporations which furnish 
instructions to their apprentices are as follows: 

General Electric Co., West Lynn, Mass. 

Western Electric Co., Chicago, 111. 

Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co., East Pittsburgh, Pa. 

Westinghouse Air Brake Co., Wilmerding, Pa. 

Brown & Sharpe, Providence, R. I. 

International Harvester Co., Chicago, 111. 

Yale & Towne Manufacturing Co., Stamford, Comi. 

R. Hoe & Co., New York, N. Y. 

Geo. V. Cresson Co., Philadelphia, Pa, 

Fore River Shipbuilding Co , Quincy, Mass. 

American Locomotive Co., Dunkirk, N. Y. 

Cadillac Motor Car Co , Detroit, Mich. 

Lakeside Press, Chicago, 111. 

North End Union, Boston, Mass. 

Solvay Process Co., Solvay, N. Y. 

Manufacturers' Association, Bridgeport, Conn. 

Baldwin Locomotive Co., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Massachusetts Independent Industrial Schools. 

The development of industrial education in Massachusetts has been 
approached upon the general theory that through the voluntary 
establishment of schemes in different communities a considerable 
number of what may be called experiment stations could be estab- 
lished, and that in this way a large amount of information could be 
accumulated as to the most efficient methods of dealing with the 
organization, establishment, and efficiency of these schools. To 
specifically encourage the establishment of such schemes, legislation 
has provided for State aid to the amount of one-half of the running 
expenses of such schemes as might be approved by the State board of 
education. The present legislation, together with the wide authority 
conferred upon the school committees under the general statute, has 
made possible the establishment of a large number of schemes, some 
of which are being carried on by the community at its own expense, 
usually in conjunction with the regular public schools, and others 
being carried on under the special legislation making possible 
State aid. 

The present status of industrial education presents, therefore, the 
following : 



60 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

Schemes maintained at public expense. 

(a) Under the general authority of the school committee. 

(b) Under the specific authority conferred by special legislation. 
(Schemes in this group are practically all State aided.) 

Schemes conducted at public expense. 

(a) Under the general authority of the school com,mittee, but not 
State aided. — These schemes have taken in general the form of a 
proposition to introduce into a high school special courses training 
for industrial efficiency. The older form has been the establish- 
ment either of a technical course within a high school or of a tech- 
nical high school, but more recently have taken the form of part- 
time work based upon the Cincinnati scheme. Boys electing this 
course are placed in various local shops and alternate on a weekly 
basis between the shop and the school. 

(b) Under special legislation. — Under the modified legislation of 
1911 cities and towns may establish special schemes controlled either 
by boards of trustees or by the local school committee. It is gen- 
erally considered that such schemes represent an extension of edu- 
cational work beyond that normally contemplated under the general 
educational statutes. Owing to the large amount of State aid avail- 
able if such schemes are approved, practically all schemes con- 
ducted under chapter 471 are so conducted as to meet with the 
approval of the State board and to receive reimbursement from 
the State. Under this scheme the following types of schools have 
developed : 

(1) Day schools. — Where the pupil is placed in a commercial shop 
for his shoptraining, considerable difficulty has arisen in controlling 
his shop experience so that it should be efficient. Since a commercial 
shop is operated for profit, there is obviously considerable difficulty, 
even with the best intentions, in so controlling and regulating the 
experience of the student that he shall be most efficient from the 
training standp>oint. This difficulty has been met by establishing 
schools controlling the experience of the pupil by operating their own 
shops, and there have been up to the present time two main types of 
schools of this general character. 

(a) In this type of school the student's entire experience is secured 
under the school roof, but it is in a sense a part-time school in that 
the student spends a week in the school shop under educationally 
commercial conditions, and then spends a week in the academic side 
of the work. In general, this type of school would present a care- 
fully controlled shop experience on the part of the pupil paralleled 
by a closely correlated course in academic and related technical work, 
the two experiences being blocked out in weekly units. 

(b) In this type of school while undertaking to make a controUed- 
shop experience a part of its responsibility an attempt is made to 
more closely correlate the shopwork with the academic work. The 
alternation between shop and school is more frequent, usually in 
terms of a half day, and a considerable use is made, especially in the 
earlier parts of the course, of the method of dealing with the pupil 
individually and bringing out in connection with each piece of work 
the related technical and academic work on what has been designated 
as ''the project method" of instruction. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 61 

It should be noted that day schools of either of the types indicated 
above assume full responsibility for the training of the pupil, both in 
trade manipulations and in the related technical and academic work, 
as well as furnishing instruction in civics and other courses of that 
character designed to train for efficient and intelligent citizenship. 

(c) Part-time schools or part responsibility schools are intended to 
give instruction in related technical and academic subjects to students 
employed during the day, such instruction being given within the 
working period. Up to the present time schemes of this character 
have been conducted to a limited extent, but sufficiently to indicate 
that such work is practicable, at least in certain industries. Up to 
the present time such courses as have been conducted have been 
mainly in connection with the machine shop industry. A similar 
course in textiles will probably be established next year in one 
locality. 

Up to date it maybe fairly said that in proportion as a school un- 
dertakes to deal with the average 14-year-old child the methods of 
instruction must differ more and more from those of the regular 
schools. It has been found that the more closely the related 
academic and technical work can be connected directly with the job, 
the more efficient is the educational side of the work and the greater 
the number of pupils who can profit by the work. In proportion as 
the academic and shop experiences are made parallel, but not closely 
connected, it appears to be necessary that the school should deal in 
general with pupils of the general type of those who can successfully 
deal with ordinary high school work. 

(2) Evening schools. — The general principle underlying the estab- 
Ushment of evening industrial schools in Massachusetts where oper- 
ated under special legislation and State aided has been that they 
should not induct into a trade, but should aid the person already 
engaged in an occupation to further perfect himself in his trade. For 
that purpose such courses are restricted to persons over 17 years 
of age already engaged in the industry. Up to the present time all 
evidence would indicate that the most emcient work is what has 
been called the ''short unit course." Such a course takes a group of 
students all engaged in the same occupation and having about the 
same degrees of experience and undertakes to give them directly some 
one thing which they need, as, for example, blue-print reading for 
machinists' apprentices, or stair building for inside finishers. In 
proportion as these evening courses have been conducted along the 
lines indicated above they have shown increasing efficiency, both from 
the testimony of the students and from the decreasing percentage of 
absence. This type of course may be fairly said to be the typical 
form of evening course approvable according to the present standards 
of the board of education. 

The general progress of industrial education in Massachusetts in 
the last few years has been somewhat as follows: A tendency to pass 
from the school undertaking to give technical and academic work, 
leaving the industry to furnish the shop training to institutions 
undertaking to control both the shop training and the academic and 
technical instruction. In the attempt to deal effectively with the 
average 14-year-old boy and girl, for whom these schools were 
especially designed, it has been found that in pr()])ortion as a close cor- 
relation is established between the shop and academic training it is 



62 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

possible to deal successfully with more and more of these children 
and to hold them for a longer period. The economic factor, how- 
ever, appears to have entered into the problem to such a degree that 
under present conditions the great mass of the children employed 
in the State will not be effectively reached by the full-time day school, 
so that the present tendency is to encourage the part-time day school 
in addition to the full-time day school of the character noted above. 
This condition is partially met by the evening courses dealing with 
the boys and girls after they have entered the industry. Physio- 
logical and other reasons, however, would indicate the undesirability 
of undertaking to deal in evening courses with children, at least 
between the ages of 14 and 17, who are working during the day. 
It appears, therefore, that the next step in the development will 
undoubtedly be in the direction of the establishment of more and 
more part-time courses which will withdraw the juvenile worker from 
the industry for a portion of the working time and continue his aca- 
demic and related technical education during that period in a part- 
time day school. The limited number of courses of this character 
established up to the present time and the limited number of indus- 
tries with which they are now dealing has prevented the accumulation 
of very definite data. There is very little question, however, but 
what there will be a rapid development along these lines in the near 
future. 

For the training of women and girls there has been up to the present 
time established but one type of day school, which gives training for 
the needle trades. A number of such schools have been established 
in the State and are State aided. The general scheme is a somewhat 
frequent alternation between a controlled trade experience in the 
shop and closely correlated academic and technical work. The 
majority of these schools operate evening courses also for girls already 
engaged in industry, under the limited conditions pointed out in 
evening courses for men. 

Legislation making possible the establishment of schools for males 
and females desiring training in connection with the productive side 
of industry has also recognized the necessity of training women and 
girls for the efficieut management of the household. The same gen- 
eral statements as to the agencies engaged in this work would apply 
here as in the case of industrial work. Departments of home making 
have been estabhshed in certain day schools, whose aim is to train 
for efficient management of the home, combined with a technical 
and academic training. The general theory in which these depart- 
ments are operated is to consider that the efficient management of 
the home and the intelligent expenditure of income is as much a 
distinct trade or occupation as is an occupation by which money is 
earned, and to organize these schools in general on the same basis as 
the strictly industrial schools. A number of serious problems have 
arisen in the development of these departments, among them the 
difficulties of giving what may be called practical shoptraining in 
such subjects as cooking, dressmaking, etc., as the problem of train- 
ing the girl in cooking in the preparation of family quantity of food, 
in training in dressmaking of the home character to find practical 
useful work in sufficient amount to give the adequate training, and 
although considerable progress has been made in devising the meth- 
ods by which the training may be made of a practical character, it 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 63 

must be frankly admitted that there must be considerable more 
experimentation before the problem ^vill be fairly worked out. 

The general training for home making presents about the same 
general phases as the industrial training. Part-time courses have 
been to some extent estabhshed for girls engaged in industry, they 
being released during a portion of the working week and attending 
a part- time day school for training looking toward home-making 
efficiency. While this work has been too recently estabHshed to 
afford a great deal of data there is no question but what this is a 
field which will be largely developed in the near future and which 
will yield very valuable results. The work already done in these 
courses, the attitude of the girls, and the efficiency of the work done 
so far all indicate that we have here a method of dealing with a 
group of girls which could be reached in no other way and deaHng 
with them effectively. 

Evening courses in women's work have been largely conducted. 
The restrictions placed upon the attendance on State-aided courses 
operated under chapter 471 have in the past prevented the attendance 
upon such courses of girls engaged in wage-earning occupations 
during the day who were not engaged in household occupations. 
Thus the girl working in a factory, the telephone operator, or the 
stenographer have been unable to avail themselves of the oppor- 
tunities offered by State-aided evening courses training for efficiency 
in the home. In recognizing the desirability of such training the 
legislature of 1912 enacted chapter 106/ maHng possible the opera- 
tion of State-aided courses giving training for domestic efficiency to 
women and girls employed during the day without regard to the 
character of that employment. 

LIST OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN MASSACHUSETTS OFFERING VOCATIONAL 

TRAINING. 

Beverly. — Independent Industrial School (part time) offers courses 
in machine shop work. Enrollment 70. 

Boston. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers the follow- 
ing: Drawing and plan reading for building trades; drawing for 
machinists, sneet-metal workers and ship fitters; free-hand drawing, 
industrial design, interior decorating; management of steam plant for 
janitors, engineers, and firemen; plumbing, pattern making, forging, 
toolmaking, machine-shop practice. Enrollment 900. 

Part-time School of Household Arts. Enrollment 75. 

Independent Industrial School for Boys ^ offers courses in elec- 
trical work, woodworking, metal working, printing and machine- 
shop work. Enrollment 96. 

Trade School for Girls offers in day classes the following: Dress- 
making, millinery, power machine operating and household arts. 

> AN ACT To provide for the establishment and maintenance of evening classes in the practical arts for 
women. 

Be it enacted, etc., That any city or town may, through its school committee or other board of tnisteea 
for vocational education, establish and maintain separate evening classes in household and other practical 
arts. Such classes shall be known as practical art cla.ssos, shall be open to all women over sovcnloen years of 
age who are employed in any capacity during the day, and may be establLshed and maintained as approved 
State-aided practical art classes under the provisions of, and subject to all the conditions, not inconsistent 
with this act, of chapter four-hundred and seventy-one of the acts of the year nineteen hundred and eleven. 
(Approved, February 16, 1912.) 

2 Day school only. 




64 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

Enrollment 435. In evening classes the folio wing are off ered : Cook- 
ing, power machine operating. Enrollment 142. 

Cambridge. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers courses 
in machine-shop practice and shop mathematics, blacksmithing, wood- 
working and pattern making. Enrollment 59. ' 

Chicopee. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers the 
following: Wood turning, pattern making, cabinet making, mechan- 
ical drawing, machine drawing, architectural drawing, machine-shop 
practice and automobile construction. Enrollment, 125. 

Everett. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers the follow- 
ing: Woodworking, mechanical drawing, shop drawing for structural 
steel workers, power work for engineers and electricians, shop mathe- 
matics, machine-shop work, household arts and dressmaking. Enroll- 
ment, 122. 

Hodley. — Agricultural department in Hopkins Academy.^ Enroll- 
ment, 15. 

Harwich. — Agricultural department in High School.^ Enrollment, 
15. • 

Holyolce. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers the follow- 
ing: Machine drawing, carpentry, steam engineering, and cooking. 
Enrollment, 180. 

Lawrence. — Independent Industrial School^ offers in day courses 
the following: Machine-shop work, electricity, pattern and cabinet 
making, textiles, dressmaking, millinery, and household arts. Enroll- 
ment, 179. In evening classes the following courses are offered: 
Steam engineering, chemistry and dyeing, cotton spinning and card- 
ing, cotton and worsted loomfixing, designing, yarn calculations, 
electricity, blue-print reading, architectural drawing, woolen and 
worsted manufacturing through spinning, cooking, and dressmaking. 
Enrollment, 886. 

Lowell. — Independent Industrial School offers in day courses the 
following: Machine work and blacksmithing, woodworking, elec- 
tricity, automobile repairing, dressmaking, and household arts. 
Enrollment, 174. In evening classes the following courses are offered: 
Machine-shop practice, electricity, boiler firing, carpentry, steam 
engineering, automobile repairing, plumbing, weaving and loom- 
fixing, ring spinning, picker and card room practice, mill arithmetic, 
household arts, millinery, and dressmaking. Enrollment, 842. 

New Bedford. — Independent Industrial School offers in day classes 
the following: Woodworking, steam-engine practice, machine-shop 
practice, building construction, electricity, household arts, millinery, 
and dressmaking. Enrollment, 203. In evening classes the following 
courses are offered : Millinery, dressmaking, household arts, electricity, 
automobile repairing, special machine work, steam engineering, stair 
building, pattern making, roof framing, machine drafting, and plumb- 
ing. Enrollment, 628. 

Neivton. — Independent Industrial School offers in day classes the 
following: Woodworking, machine-shop work, electricity, and print- 
ing. Enrollment, 59. In evening classes the following courses are 
offered: Sewing, dressmaking, cooking, machine-shop practice, ma- 
chine dra\ving and blue-print reading, architectural drawing, shop 
mathematics. Enrollment, 235. 



Day school only. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 65 

NortTiampton. — Smith's Agricultural School and Northampton 
School of Industries ^ offers courses in agriculture^ household arts, and 
woodworking. Enrollment, 150. 

North Attleboro. — Independent Evening Industrial Sshool ^ offers 
courses in shop chemistry, jewelry design and modeling, shop mathe- 
matics, and English. Enrollment, 48. 

NortJiboro. — Agricultural department in High School.^ Enroll- 
ment, 16. 

PetershxLTn. — Agricultural department in High School.^ Enroll- 
ment, 15. 

Quincy. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers courses in 
mechanical drawing and monument design. Enrollment, 80. 

Somerville. — Independent Industrial School for Boys^ offers courses 
in woodworking and metal work. Enrollment, 80. 

Independent Industrial School for Girls ^ offers courses in dress- 
making and millinery. Enrollment, 65. 

Springfield. — Independent Industrial School for Boys ^ offers 
courses in woodworking and metal work. Enrollment, 80. 

Taunton. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers courses 
in shop drafting, architectural drafting, and industrial design. Enroll- 
ment, 24. 

Watertomn. — Independent Evening Industrial School offers a course 
in drawing for macmnists. Enrollment, 13. 

Westfield. — Independent Industrial School for Boys^ offers courses 
in woodworking and metal working. Enrollment, 24. 

Worcester. — Trade School for Boys offers in day classes the follow- 
ing: Steam-engine practice, machine-shop work, woodworking, cab- 
inet and pattern making. Enrollment, 180. In evening classes the 
following courses are given: Mechanical drawing and blue-print 
reading, pattern making, cabinetmaking and house framing, lathe 
work, planer, miller, grinder, gear cutting, gasoline-engine practice, 
shop computations for machinists, electric wiring and motor work. 
Enrollment, 347. 

Trade School for Girls ^ offers courses in dressmaking and sewing, 
millinery, power-machine operation. Enrollment, 90. 

Total number of cities and towns where some form of vocational 
education is being maintained, 35. 

Subjects taugJit in day classes. — Machine-shop work, household arts, 
electricity, metal working, printing, dressmaking, millinery, power- 
machine operating, blacksmithing, agriculture, pattern makmg, cabi- 
netmaking, textiles, automobile repairing, steam-engine practice, and 
and building construction. 

Subjects taught in evening classes. — Drawing and plan reading for 
building trades; drawing for machinists, sheet-metal workers, and 
shipfitters; free-hand drawing; industrial design; interior decorating; 
management of steam plant for janitors, engineers and firemen; 
plumbing; pattern maldng; forging; toolmaldng; machine-shop prac- 
tice; cooking; power machine operating; woodworking; mechanical 
and architectural drawing; automobile construction; shop drawing 
for structural steel workers; power work for engineers and electricians; 
dressmaking; shop mathematics; steam engineering; chomistrA' and 
dyeing; cotton spinning and carding; woolen and worsted loom fixing; 

> Day school only. 
50G0S°— S. Doc. 036, 02-2 5 



66 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATIOK. 

yarn calculations; electricity; blue print reading; woolen and worsted 
manufacturing through spinning; plumbing; weaving; ring spinning; 
picker and card room practice; mill arithmetic; household arts; stair 
building; roof framing; jewelry design and modeling; monument 
design; house framing; gasoline-engine practice. 

New York State Factory Schools. 

With the passage of a law authorizing vocational schools there came 
the problem of administering them in the letter of the law and at the 
same time to continue the best traditions of our State system of 
education. 

The problem was deeper than the mere establishment of a few 
isolated and special schools. It was the problem of establishing a 
new type of education which would work alongside of, and not be 
antagonistic to, an older type. It was to be a type that would 
assist the older in doing better a few things that its good intentions 
led it to do and at the same time developing within itself a line of work 
which it could do a bit better than its neighbor who had primarily 
other things to do. 

THE INTERMEDIATE INDUSTRIAL SCHOOL. 

The plan as now operating provides that five-twelfths of the school 
program shall be given over to shop, laboratory, and drawing instruc- 
tion and that the remaining seven- twelfths be devoted to '^book 
studies," which practically amounts to saying that the pupils shall 
for the remainder of the time take the regular elementary school 
studies corresponding to the seventh and eighth grades. These 
studies are related to the industrial studies as far as is possible. Both 
boys and girls have similar work in English and history. The 
arithmetic course for boys di^er from that for girls. The geography 
is viewed as an outgrowth of the life-long problem of providing food, 
clothing and shelter. The physiology is studied from the viewpoint 
of hygiene and sanitation rather than the structural only. The 
shop, laboratory, and drawing work diiTers with the sex considered. 

The questions naturally arise: Are these children receiving an 
education? Can they enter the high school? One superintendent 
v>'iites: 

We had no trade school for our graduates of the intermediate industrial school to 
enter. They were obliged to enter our regular courses in the high school. We had 
hardly expected that many would care to. That was one reason f,or advising them 
to enter the vocational school. The majority, however, did enter the high school 
and for all I can see are doing as good work as those who finished the eighth grade 
in the regular schools. 

On the surface it would seem impossible to do as much bookwork 
in seven-twelfths of a day's program as the regular seventh and 
eighth grade pupils accomplish in a whole day; nevertheless, thus far 
the pupils in the intermediate industrial schools seem to be accom- 
plishing it. Let us note the possible reasons. We must remember 

(1) that in the vocational sections a teacher does not handle more 
than 25 pupils at a time and more individual instruction is possible; 

(2) that the book studies of English, history, and geography may be 
so correlated that penmanship and spelling are brought into every 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 67 

written lesson and that practice in reading appears in the history and 
geography; (3) that the bookwork is not interrupted by the visita- 
tions of a drawing, music, or manual arts supervisor; (4) that the 
connection between the shopwork and the bookwork is so close that 
one naturally assists the other; and (5) that the hours spent in the 
shop and drawing room afford a relief from brain fatigue. 

VOCATIONAL COURSES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL. 

The education department has developed a plan by which an aver- 
age high school now teaching college preparatory, commercial, indus- 
trial, and home-making subjects can economically and effectively 
develop courses of instruction along the lines suggested by the syllabus 
which shall have a well-blended, liberal, and vocational training. 
Instead of these schools offering commercial, industrial, and home- 
making subjects it is proposed that they offer well-defined courses 
for pupils who seek different destinations. A certain amount of the 
work will be common to all these courses and will consist of the 
prescribed studies which are deemed essential to a sound and sym- 
metrical education and which, under normal conditions, should be 
prescribed for all pupils in a secondary school. These prescribed 
studies are English for four years, English history, American history 
with civics, algebra, plane geometry, biology, and physics. Another 
division consists of such elective subjects as may be necessary for 
pupils seeking different destinations. It can not be emphasized too 
often that a vocational course does not consist merely of vocational 
subjects thrown at random into a high-school system. The voca- 
tional purpose must be satisfied by a definite course. 

The subjects of manual and agricultural arts have not been incor- 
porated in the college preparatory or commercial groups. No one 
is willing to say that it is a waste of time for a boy in the college 
preparatory group to elect some handwork, but a better time to gain 
the most effective educational value from this subject is w^hon the 
boy is in the seventh and eighth grades. To take shopwork without 
accompanying it with strong courses in mechanical drawing, related 
science and mathematics is to overlook the educational importance 
of true educational handwork in the secondary school. A line of 
shopwork which merely consists of making a few articles of furniture, 
which simply train skill of hand, and which has nothing to do with 
vocational direction or with other school studies, has not the educa- 
tional value to which the high school boy is entitled. Of course we 
are considering that handwork in secondary schools is to have educa- 
tional value. If it is given merely to gain credits or to keep the boy 
busy or happy or out of mischief, then, of course, serious educational 
questions of now to make the manual arts really effective have no 
place in this discussion. 

The law states, clearly certain conditions which a vocatimal school 
must meet in order to be considered as entitled to special State aid. 
(1) It must be independently organized — not necessarily a separate 
building but most assuredly established with a distinct vocational 
purpose in mind; (2) it must have an enrollment of at least 25; (,S) it 
must employ the full time of a teacher; and (4) it must liavc a coui*se 
of study meeting the approval of the Commissioner of Kchicatiou. 
The first three conditions admit of no changes and arc to be enforced 



68 USTDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

in all places without variation from the word of the law. The fourth 
c(Sidition allows for considerable latitude and discretion. The 
course of study is not defined by the law; it may vary in different 
locaUties and connect with the different local industries, which vary 
in different parts of this great State. The course of study in agri- 
culture and related subjects may emphasize dairying in St. Lawrence 
County, and fruit growing in Ontario County. An industrial course 
may concern itself with the shoe industry of Rochester or the knitting 
mills of Utica; it may omit mechanical drawing in Gloversville and 
emphasize it in Schenectady. The vocational training may be of 
rather the general industrial nature in Albany or have its specific 
trade aspects in Lackawanna. The only points that need to be 
considered in the establishment of such a school course in a high 
school system are: (1) Is it established to meet the vocational pur- 
pose in education ? (2) Does it meet the requirements of the law ? 

The department has ruled that five-twelfths of the weekly program 
of a vocational school department of a high school must be given 
over to the vocational studies chosen from the elective group. This 
particular ratio was settled upon after considering two propositions. 
(1) The present requirements for an academic diploma call for 41 
counts in certain studies, primarily liberal. These counts closely 
approximate seven-twelfths of the total number, 72, required for a 
diploma. (2) Vocational training of high-school grade demands a 
certain amount of liberal training. Preparation for a vocation 
should have academic recognition through a diploma if the work is 
of high-school grade. The placing of the ratio five- twelfths voca- 
tional to seven-twelfths liberal will satisfy the time elements of both 
divisions of the course of study. Consequently the pupils in the 
vocational school course have the same liberalizing studies, or their 
equivalent, as do pupils in other courses. They take the same 
department examinations in English, history, algebra, geometry, 
and biology when they follow the same syllabus as other pupils. 
When the school offers, as it should, special and practical courses in 
mathematics and science beyond, or in place of, those just mentioned, 
the work is inspected and if the definite outlines submitted to the 
department are satisfactory, if the teacher is trained for his work, 
and if it is seen that he can make direct and useful applications of 
the abstract to the concrete shop, laboratory, or field work of the 
home and the school, then the department grants credits without 
examination. No examinations are given in the vocational subjects 
proper. 

THE TRADE SCHOOL. 

The policy of the open door in education demands, not as some are 
inclined to favor, the avoidance of a type of school which will definitely 
prepare, as far as a school may, boys and girls for specific trades, but 
rather the definite establishment of schools which will accomphsh 
this purpose. It is evident from the discussion of the place of the 
general industrial school and the vocational school courses in existing 
high schools that ample justice has been done to the open-door policy. 
Pupils in the former school have received not only a good elementary 
education but also have made the beginnings toward a preparation for 
trade and industry. In the latter type every opportunity has 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 69 

been given to encourage in every possible manner a tjrpe of vocational 
training which may very properly belong to a class of pupils enrolled 
in a secondary school. Its course of instruction is dignified, 
thoroughly educational, and worthy of recognition equivalent to 
other high-school courses. No boy capable of doing what amounts 
to an equivalent of high-school work is prevented from doing voca- 
tional work of that order and from receiving academic recognition 
for his accompHshment. He will upon graduation take, or will 
make liis way to, that place which befits one who has completed a 
course of instruction covering 12 years of his life. For the school 
system to have been able to do the definite work of preparing pupils 
of high-school age and attainment for definite vocations and at the 
same time to have given them the equivalent of a high-school educa- 
tion is a test worthy of any secondary school. 

The work of preparing our youth for vocations, however, is not 
completed with either of the schemes proposed, for two reasons: 
(1) The general industrial school, which is a feeder to the appren- 
ticeship system or to a higher school, is based u^on the supposition 
that somewhere a door is open to its graduates. One of these higher 
schools is the vocational-school course in the high school; the other 
is the trade school. (2) In order that there may actually be an open 
door, it is necessary that the school system make provision for those 
who desire further education but do not care for, and it may be pre- 
sumed can not successfully maintain, the academic standards of a 
course of study which parallels in any way the regular liigh school. 

The general industrial, or intermediate industrial, school is intended 
to explore through various kinds of industrial work the industrial 
capacities of children. It assumes that teachers will keep a watchful 
eye upon individual interests. In short, it assumes that when a boy 
leaves this school he has some knowledge of where he is going and 
some preparation for his work. Some boys will know, for example, 
that t.ney want to be plumbers. They know tlais because the inter- 
mediate school gave them some instruction in tinsmitliing, sheet- 
metal work, and mechanical drawing, together with the elements of 
other groups of trades. They deserve the open door.' To open the 
door to a nigh-school course is to offer an opening through wliich 
they can not and will not pass. In effect, it is really a closed door. 
To furnish them a place where they can learn a trade after they have 
settled upon it is the best kind of an open door. 

There are some very definite principles in the organization of trade 
schools which need to be considered. 

1. Pupils enter these schools with a well-defined purpose. The 
period of trying out is finished. They are there to learn a specific 
trade to the full extent that is possible in any school ])lan. 

2. This type of school absolutely abandons any specific instruction 
in the so-called liberal studies. This may seem harsh, but we must 
remember that the pupil has enrolled for one purpose and it is fortu- 
nate that the school has even one thing, narrow though it may appear 
to be, to offer him. The pupil of a trade school is not the type that 
can be held in school through any liberal studies which are frankly 
apart from his pressing needs as he sees them. We must recognize 
that he is 16 years old, that his school days are numbered, and 
that if his participation in the educative process for eight years 
before coming to the school has not done somethmg in the way of 



70 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

liberal training, it never will. There is no law compelling him to 
attend school, possibly no parents who have broad ideas of educa- 
tional values, no full pocketbook to allow for leisurely walking 
through the halls of learning — nothing but the bare economic neces- 
sities of the individual case. All the culture which he is to receive 
must come directly from his trade instruction. The question naturally 
arises, How much can trade instruction do to make him see beyond 
the attainment of mere hand skill? A great deal. In the first 

Elace, it is assumed that the trade instructor is himself a man who 
as the true spirit of craftsmanship. He may not be learned, as the 
saying is, but he has a clean character, believes in honest work, 
knows something of the economic questions which enter into his 
trade, reads his weekly trade paper, is able to apply those book and 
technical studies which have direct application to his craft, and has 
the ability to inspire his pupils by personal example and instruction 
to do the best for themselves. In the second place, it is taken for 
granted that there can never be genuine trade instruction without 
some accompaniment of the application to the trade practice of 
mathematics, science, economics, and other subjects. 

3. The trade school organization requires a very diffeient method 
than is now, or is likely to be, in vogue in other types of vocational 
training. The intermediate and secondary vocational schools have in 
their organization a number of teachers — some on the shop and some 
on the bookwork side. The shopwork and bookwork are closely cor- 
related, but this is brought about through cooperation between two 
kinds of instruction, one primarily vocational, the other primarily 
liberal and disciplinary. Fortunately, both have the good sense to 
work together for a common end. The problem in such schools is one 
of maldng a close adjustment between the two kinds, and the success 
of these types, as has already been pointed out, depends largely upon 
the definiteness of their relationship. One sees, however, that there 
is always the problem of adjustment, and the more subjects in the 
course and the greater the number of teachers to which each pupil 
reports the more difficult becomes the fulfillment of this adjustment. 
But the trade school organization is on a very different basis. Here 
the particular trade represented forms a school in itself. There should 
be no departments of history, English, mathematics, drawing, etc., in 
this type of school. These subjects, or others which are necessary to 
trade proficiency, must be taught by the teacher of the trade. He 
is the master craftsman who knows what is needed quickly and 
effectively to prepare pupils for the craft which he represents. He 
asks no aid of a teacher of mathematics or science. He spends no 
time attempting to bring about an adjustment of the work of another 
teacher to his particular work. The pupil should not have to adjust 
two ideas as presented by two teachers. It is one trade taught by 
one teacher. 

Probably an example or two will make the foregoing principle 
clear. Consider the teaching of the printing trade. A room is set 
apart in a school building; a first-class, clean-cut printer is engaged 
as a teacher; a proper equipment is provided; not more than 15 
pupils are enrolled in the class. The trade problem before us is the 

Erin ting of the school report. Many points must be considered 
eyond the mere picking up of the type. The type must be selected 
with due regard to size of book and the expense involved. The 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 71 

proper paper has to be selected, its finish, the size of the sheets to be 
cut up into leaves, the number of folios estimated from the amount 
of manuscript for the quantity of paper required, the proper propor- 
tion of width to length of page, the colors of the ink, the tone of the 
cover, the spacing of the title-pages, the ornamentation, the tail- 
pieces, the border lines, the position of the cuts inserted, the proper 
spelling, paragraphing, punctuation, etc. Here are questions which 
lead into arithmetic, design, spelling, grammar, and punctuation. 
We do not need to send the pupil to the drawing teacher, to the 
teacher of arithmetic, or to the teacher of English. If our teacher of 
printing is what we expect him to be, he knows the answers to the 
questions, and it will be his business to bring before the individual 
these points when they come up in the problem. 

Consider another illustration — that of the plumbing trade. Ques- 
tions arise about the reading of house plans, of applying simple 
problems in the flow of liquids, of using different forms of traps, of 
knowing tables of specific gravities, of weights per linear foot of dif- 
ferent materials, of cubical contents of different vessels, of melting 
points of different solids, and of estimating cost of instaUation of 
plumbing fixtures. This work need not be delegated to various 
departments of mathematics, science, and drawing. Our plumbing 
teacher knows his business, and the time of the boy is short. 

It is readily seen that somehow, unconsciously perhaps, the pupil 
has absorbed some of the disciplinary studies of which we were afraid 
he was about to be deprived. Furthermore, the teacher can do some- 
thing more than we sometimes think toward giving the pupils a taste 
for the liberalizing studies of economics and history. It is assumed 
that our teacher is really alive to the human needs of the vocation, 
that he knows about trade unionism, the effect of hours and wages 
upon prices, something of the history of printing, the benefits to 
human prcgress of the invention of the printing press, and a score of 
other points which have made him, through reading and observation, 
an intelligent printer. One has no right to suppose for a moment that 
this information is not to be drawn out of our instructor by wide- 
awake boys, that the class is not going to ask questions about these 
things, that the teacher is not going to respond. Besides, we expect 
that the school will invite men prominent in the trade to talk to the 
boys about the technical and economic questions involved in the art 
of printing. Tnere is more ''education" in a trade school than one 
is prepared to see at first glance. To be sure some trades do not 
appear to have very much educational content. It is easy to settle 
this point, for these trades will not be taught in a school. Trade 
schools are a part of an educational system — not a part of a sclicme 
which merely supplies the labor market with a material less capable 
than it now has. 

4. The trade schools must keep longer hours than the present 
schools. In tliis respect, as in many others, they must approach shop 
conditions. Tiiey have no connection with other schools; the pupils 
do not recite any subject with others. The trade school is the pro- 
fessional school for the industrial workers and it presupposes tliat it is 
his final schooling place and that he desires to make his timo of 
attendance as short as possible consistent with all-around trade train- 
ing. He is there to reduce iiis time of apprenticeship and every hour 
counts. If he was not in the school he would be in the shop or factory 



72 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

working 54 hours a week, and it will not be any hardship to provide 
longer school hours for him. 

5. The trade-school pupil ought, in justice to his vocational prepa- 
ration, abandon all ideas of going to college — not that he will be pre- 
vented from going to a higher school, but rather that his particular 
open door leads to the factory or shop. It is his professional school, 
just as for others is a law, medical, or dental school. No lawyer is 
prevented from becoming a minister, but a change in vocational 
purpose necessarily means a retracing of educational effort. At 
some time everyone must decide what he proposes to do, and then 
go about to accomplish his purpose. 

6. The classes in a trade school will have a smaller class unit. It 
will be impossible to give proper instruction to a class numbering 
over 15 or 20. Most of it must be, in the nature of the case, indi- 
vidual instruction. 

7. Obviously, the trade school can not guarantee finished workmen 
any more than the law schools send out finished lawyers. The com- 
bination of school training and actual practice will make very efficient 
workmen. The trade school, with its shoj)work and its theory of 
trade practice, will lay an excellent foundation upon which to build 
individual advancement when the worker enters the shop. 

SYSTEM OF CONTINUATION SCHOOLS. 

Industrial education needs to extend to the still smaller industrial 
communities. It should relate itself in some way to specific trade 
needs. 

It is safe to assume that the only solution open for these small 
places by which they can provide definite instruction in trade lines 
will be for them to establish day continuation schools which provide 
for an equitable distribution of the responsibifities for instruction 
between the shop in which the youth is employed and the school in 
which he may be expected to attend for a few hours a week. All 
the bookwork in the schools applies directly to the business in which 
he finds himself, when the trade at which he is working calls for any 
special knowledge, while the shop itself supplies the trade atmos- 
pnere. In this way the boys and girls in the smaller industrial 
centers will be receiving vocational training, and mil not be neglected 
as they necessarily will be if the State considers a scheme of industrial 
training which includes only general industrial vocational courses in 
high schools and trade schools. The city of Lackawanna will serve 
as a good illustration. At present it has no manual training and no 
vocational training of any nature. It has a relatively small high- 
school enrollment. It has a class of people which expects its children 
to go to work early. There is but one great industry in the city, and 
that is steel manufacture. The interests of the city and ^f the 
industry are closely united. Something should be done in the way 
of vocational training, but no plan will work which does not provide 
on the part of the boy for '' earning as well as learning," and for the 
avoidance on the part of the city of a great outlay of money for 
equipment. The continuation school seems to be the only solution. 

Schools now open their doors to children in the evening ; but evening 
instruction for the child between 14 and 17 is not effective when he is 
fatigued in will and body. Primarily evening schools should be for 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION^. 73 

young men and women, for those who know what they want through 
the hard school of experience. No note of disparagement is intended 
of the value of evening schools for those who are old enough and 
physically developed enough to do the work. But the pace of the 
modern shop or department store makes it hard indeed for the grow- 
ing boy or girl to do good evening school work after a long, hard day 
spent at a machine or at a bundle counter. Germany has largely 
superseded her evening schools for young apprentices by the more 
effective day continuation school. England has built practically 
her entire scheme of industrial education upon the evening-school 
phase and is now seeing her mistake. 

Signs are already indicated on the horizon that compulsory edu- 
cation laws will be so amended, developed, and extended as to include 
much more than age maturity. The agitation for a change of pro- 
cedure is strong in such pros^ressive States as Illinois, Ohio, New 
York, and Massachusetts. These schools will therefore be com- 
pulsory. They will continue the education of those who go to work 
until they are 16. The common branches mil be taught and a 
decided effort will be made 'Ho keep control of children through this 
trying period, to imbue them with correct ideals of citizenship, and to 
give them vocational guidance and training." The State already 
has the oversight of hours of labor, of sanitary conditions of the fac- 
tory, of the use of certain dangerous machinery. If it has these 
rights, is it not fair to presume that it has the further right of oversee- 
ing the mental conditions undec which children work and to apply 
corrective measures ? 

TEACHERS OP VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS. 

Trained teachers are needed for the vocational schools. Some 
cautious people would postpone the starting of these schools until 
we have a trained body of candidates from which to draw. At 
present it can hardly be expected that a thousand people will rush 
in to be trained when only one hundred positions await them. Even 
Germany finds that good industrial teachers are scarce. The man 
who is school trained is said to be theoretical; the ordinary skilled 
workman is "too heavy." A man may know his trade but be unable 
to impart the knowledge to a pupil. One such teacher was over- 
heard to remark to a pupil, ''Get out of my way; I will plane the 
piece for you." He was a good workman but not a teacher. 

It is probably true that it is impossible for the average normal 
training school to fit students for teaching in shop positions in the 
vocational schools unless these students have had shop experience 
before entering the school or obtained such experience after gradua- 
tion. Neither will the present methods in normal training (qualify 
graduates to place the proper emphasis on the book work of the voca- 
tional schools upon the application to various trades of science, 
mathematics, ana shop accounts. 

New York is the first State to undertake definitely tlio training 
of teachers for vocational work. It recognized at the start that no 
one source of supply would be sufficient nor would one particular 
method of training be advisable. At present there are thrtn^ State 
normal institutions, two universities, and two technical institutes 



74 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

which are training teachers for one or more of the proposed types of 
vocational schools. 

The Buffalo Normal School has an evening training school for the 
mechanics who desire to fit themselves as teachers. In the fall of 
1910 six men entered vocational evening classes and five completed 
the year's work. Four of these have returned for the second year's 
training. The second year for the vocational evening classes has 
opened with a registration of 32 new students. These are all men 
who are skilled mechanics and are coming to the school for the train- 
ing in teaching. They appear to be a very intelligent and promising 
lot of men and the increase in registration over last year is an indi- 
cation that the work is attracting favorable consideration. 

There are now 35 industrial and trade schools operating under 
the industrial education law, employing 145 teachers. These 
schools have a day enrollment of 3,370 pupils and an evening enroll- 
ment of 2,933 pupils, or a total enrollment of 6,303 pupils. There 
are 527 other pupils using the equipment, but not enrolled in these 
schools. 

Philanthropic Industrial Schools. 

These schools, as the name indicates, have teen founded by private 
benevolence. They differ widely in methods and management, but 
the general purpose is the same. Naturally they are apt to be located 
in or near industrial centers, where the demand for skilled workers 
and the potential supply are alike large. Being independent units, 
philanthropic schools can adopt or alter courses of study more easily 
than can the public schools, and hence they have shown a quicker 
response to the growing demand for trade training. For perfectly 
obvious reasons some schools have been founded expressly to meet a 
specific demand Others have been established to give, in addition 
to the trade courses, technical and scientific education In general 
these schools aim to give trade instruction in a practical way without 
demanding much study of other subjects, but some of them include 
also purely cultural studies in their industrial courses 

Some are maintained entirely on the original foundation; others 
receive aid from State, city, or individuals. Some are free, some 
make a nominal charge for tuition, while others receive as tuition 
fees sums nearly sufficient to support the institution. Some give 
trade preparation, some continuation education, while others give 
training which takes the place of one, two, or three years of appren- 
ticeship, while others aim to teach trades in their entirety. 

For the purposes of this report it is deemed expedient to give a 
brief description of schools which typify six kinds of activities, which 
are the leading exponents of trade education in the United States and 
are as follows : 

New York Trade School, New York, N. Y. 

Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, Williamson School, 
Pa. 

The Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts, San Francisco, Cal. 

National Trade Schools, Indianapolis, Ind. 

Carnegie Technical Schools: School of Applied Industries, Pitts- 
burgh, Pa. 

David Ranken, jr., School of Mechanical Trades, St. Louis, Mo. 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 75 

NEW YORK TRADE SCHOOL, NEW YORK, N. Y. 

The New York Trade School is an independent endowed institution 
which provides day and evening trade instruction to beginners and 
to men already employed at trades. The school was founded in 1881, 
and regards itself as the pioneer in trade-school instruction in the 
United States. 

The system instituted by the founder combines both theoretical 
and practical training and aims to send forth the pupil equipped with 
a knowledge of the theory as well as the practice of his trade, however, 
it does not guarantee to make a finished workman, but believes that 
subsequent practice will supply skill and speed needed for a finished 
workman. 

The trades taught and the pupils in each in the day school are as 
follows: Plumbing, 84; electrical work, 33; painting and decorating, 
4; sign painting, 5; cornice and skylight work, 7; bricklaying, 14; 
carpentry, 11; steam and hot-water fitting, 14. 

In the evening classes the enrollment is as follows : Bricklaying, 25 ; 
plastering, 13; plumbing, 199; electrical work, 106; pattern making, 
10; painting and decorating, 20; blacksmithing, 9; printing, 28; 
sign painting, 21 ; cornice and skylight work, 61 ; steam and hot- water 
fitting, 24. Young men who can read and write and who are at least 
17 years of age may enter the day or evening school. The maximum 
age at entrance varies from 22 to 25 years according to the trade. 
In only one course, cornice and skylight work, is previous trade 
experience an entrance requirement. 

All pupils must register for a full term. Except for excellent rea- 
sons entrance must be made when the classes are formed. Prac- 
tically all of the pupils in the evening school are employed during 
the day in the trades which they are taking. 

The length of the day course for each trade is 16 weeks, except for 
steam and hot-water fitting, which covers 12 weeks. Classes meet 
every day from Monday to Saturday, inclusive, from 8.30 a. m. to 4 
p. m., with one hour's recess at noon. Classes on Saturday close at 
noon. The school year opens in December and closes in March. 

The evening scliool year extends over a period of 26 weeks from 
September to March. The course for steam and hot-water fitting 
covers two years ; for other trades three years are required. Ses- 
sions are held Mondays, Wednesdays, and Fridays from 7 to 9.30 
p. m. In the plumbing and cornice and skyl^'^^ht-work courses the 
large classes necessitate extra sessions on Tuesdays, Thursdays, and 
Saturdays for first-term pupils. Legal holidays are observed as well 
as a recess of 3 days at Christmas. 

In the day classes the periods per week for theory and for shop- 
work are divided as follows: Electrical work. 3 hours theor^^ 33 hours 
shop practice; painting and decorating, brickhiying, cornice and 
skylight work, carpentry, 1^ hours theory, 34^ hours shop practice; 
steam and hot-water fitting, sign painting, and plumbing, 3| haul's 
theory. 32 1 hours shop practice. 

In the evening school, theory and shop practice are divided as 
follows: Electrical work, 1 hour theory, 6^ hours shop practice; in 
sign painting, steam and hot-water fitting, and phiinbiiig, j hour 
theory, 6^ hours shop practice; for the reaiainiiig trades, i hour 
(heory, 7 hours shop practice. 



76 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

Theory in both schools includes drawing, either free-hand or 
plan, lectures, and examinations. 

Pamphlet text-books and typewritten sheets are furnished with- 
out charge to the pupils. No other textbooks are used. There is 
a reference library connected with the school for the pupils. 

For the completion of each term's work an ''award of merit" is 
given to undergraduates. A certificate, in which is stated the suc- 
cessful completion of any course and a satisfactory examination in 
both the theory and practice of the trade studied, is awarded each 
graduate. In the day classes it is stated that between 97 and 99 
per cent receive certificates. In the evening school 80 to 85 per cent 
receive certificates. 

Twenty-seven teachers are employed. All teach both the theory 
and practice of their trades. Two reported education in technical 
schools; four reported secondary education in high schools. All 
had practical shop experience in their trades. The teachers are 
selected because of their reputation as all-round competent work- 
men who have the ability to teach. The educational qualifications 
are not considered unless the shop ability of the teacher has been 
accepted as satisfactory. 

WILLIAMSON FREE SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES, WILLIAMSON 

SCHOOL, PA. 

The Williamson Free School of Mechanical Trades, in Delaware 
County, Pa., an independent day trade school founded and endowed 
in December, 1888, was opened in 1891. Its purpose as stated by 
the founder is to afford an opportunity for poor and deserving boys 
to receive the rudiments of a good English education, a training in 
habits of industry and economy, and instruction in mechanical 
trades or handicrafts, so that they may be able to support themselves 
by the labor of their own hands and become useful and respectable 
members of society. He also stated that the general abandonment 
or disuse of the system of apprenticeship made necessary the estab- 
lishment of such an institution to afford an opportunity for industrial 
education which the public schools or other institutions failed to 
provide. He further stated that in place of a respect for the dignity 
of labor there had grown up a false belief to the effect that manual 
labor is not respectable, which belief had sent young men into already 
crowded professional pursuits in which they had but slight chance of 
success, and in which failure resulted in idleness, beggary, and crime. 

By the terms of the foundation deed the benefits of the school are 
entirely free. These include boarding, instruction, clothing, etc., 
during the entire course. 

The curriculum of the school is planned to teach thoroughly the 
five trades listed below and to equip graduates, in so far as a school 
may, as journeymen mechanics. In its shop practice the school 
covers aU the work of the usual apprenticeship. 

The trades taught and the pupils enroUed in each for 1909-10 are 
as follows: Bricklaying, 55; carpentry, 54; stationary engineers, 27; 
machinist, 54; pattern making, 42. 

These pupils have been assigned to the various trades by the 
trustees, who are enjoined to consider the taste and adaptability of 
each candidate. A candidate is given an opportunity to name from 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 77 

the trades taught the trade which he desires to learn, and if there is a 
substantial reason for the choice and it is possible to grant it, he is 
assigned to that trade. If it is not possible to consider the choice, 
another trade is offered. If this is declined, the name of the candi- 
date is removed from the list. 

The selection of candidates is governed by the three following 
factors: (1) Financial conditions, (2) place of birth, and (3) ability 
to pass the entrance examinations. Preference is given to indigent 
boys. In the matter of place of birth preference is given in the fol- 
lowing order: (1) Philadelphia, (2) Bucks County, Pa., (3) Mont- 
gomery or Delaware County, Pa., (4) elsewhere in Pennsylvania, 
(5) New Jersey, (6) elsewhere in the United States. Candidates 
must be able-bodied, healthy males, 16 and under 18 years of age. 

Applications from boys of at least 15 years of age are received and 
recorded for action later. Applications must be signed by the 
parents or guardians. A certificate of the date and place of birth 
of the candidate is required. 

Candidates are required to pass an academic and a physical exami- 
nation. One important requisite of admission is a statement to the 
effect that the candidate expects to follow the trade learned in the 
school. 

Admissions are made in April, and pupils are placed on probation 
for four months, at the conclusion of which, if satisfactory, they are 
indentured to the trustees for three years. This indenture may be 
canceled for good and sufficient reasons. In exceptional cases boys 
may be admitted to fill vacancies which occur in the first month, 
but otherwise no pupils are admitted after April 1. 

In addition to the regular trade pupils there is a class of ''reserve 
boys" who, while desirable in every other way, have failed to pass 
the academic entrance examination. About 20 such boys are given 
an opportunity to receive nine hours per week of academic instruction 
in order to make up the deficiencies of their education. The}^ are 
supported by the school and in return are required to assist in the 
care of the shops and of the household. If, at the end of the year, 
they successfully pass the examination and have proved satisfactory 
in conduct and work, they are admitted as regular trade pupils. 

The course for each trade covers three years. During the fii'st 2 
years 20 hours per week are given to school and 20 to shop work; for 
the first 4 months of the third year there are 20 hours of school work 
and 23 hours of shop work; during the remainder of the third year 
there are 43 hours per week of shop practice, with a limited amount 
of academic work in addition in evening classes. 

The periods for the regular academic work are in the day classes 
60 minutes in length; in the evening classes for senioi*s the periods 
are 90 minutes each. In subjects in which there is laboratory work 
and in mechanical drawing several periods may be consecutive. The 
subjects for all pupils except stationary engineers are as follows: 

First year. — Grammar, geograpliy, physiology and hygiene, liter- 
ature, history, music (vocal), arithmetic, mechanicj\l drr.wing. 

Second year. — Grammar, literature, music (vocal), aritlune(ic (inon- 
suration), algebra, chemistry, physics, mechanical drawing. 

Third year. — First four months, algebra, geometry, trigonomc^hy, 
chemistry, physics, commercial forms, strength of materials, nuM'han- 
ical drawing; and for the remainder of year in evening classes, trigr>- 



78 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

nometry, strength of materials ; and for machinists and pattern making 
the theory of the steam engine, in addition. 

Stationary engineers in the first year take practically the same 
course as the other pupils except that one hour given to the subject 
of the steam engine leaves one period less in mechanical drawing. 
In the second year they take grammar, literature, music (vocal), 
arithmetic (mensuration), algebra, chemistry, physics, steam, steam 
boiler, steam engine, steam heating, ventilating, and mechanical 
drawing. 

In the third year during the first four months the subjects are 
algebra, geometry, trigonometry, physics, alternating current, direct 
current, refrigeration, steam, ^as and gas engine, mechanical draw- 
ing, chemistry, and commercial forms. During the remainder of the 
year the subjects are trigonometry and strength of materials, taken 
in evening classes. 

The shops are completely equipped with tools and machines. The 
effort is made to give as many practical problems as possible. 

The school and shop classes are in session from 8 a. m. to 12 m. and 
from 1 to 5 p. m. from Monday to Friday, inclusive. The third-year 
pupils have shop practice also on Saturday from 8 to 11 a. m., and 
during the last seven months have IJ hours of academic work two or 
three evenings per week. The term opens in September and closes 
on July 31, the school year consisting of 46 weeks. Pupils are gradu- 
ated in March in order to be prepared to accept or to seek employment 
at the opening of the season in the building trades. There is a 10 
days' recess at Christmas. 

A diploma is given on the completion of the course, which states 
that the pupil has completed his apprenticeship in his trade, includ- 
ing a course of practical and theoretical instruction therein, in trade 
drawing, and also in the usual branches of a good common-school 
English education. No certificate or statement is given for a partial 
course. About 80 per cent of the pupils receive a diploma. Pupils 
who withdraw before the, completion of the course are usually those 
who fail to show sufficient application to their work. 

No textbooks are used for the theory of the trades. A series of 
shop talks are prepared for each trade. The classes meet in a room 
adjoining the shop for this instruction, which precedes each exercise 
or set of exercises in practical work. A reference library and trade 
magazines are at the disposal of the students for supplementary 
information regarding their work 

There are seven instructors, one of whom teaches mechanical draw- 
ing and the remainder the practical work of their respective trades. 
The director of the shop work holds a degree in mechanical engineering, 
live are graduates of the Williamson School, and all but one have had 
practical shop experience. The positions are considered desirable, 
and there is a waiting fist of apphcants. The director of the school 
has prepared a series of shop talks, or outlines for each trade. None 
of the others has done any original work in the preparation of text- 
books. 

The property of the Williamson School consists of 24 buildings, 
located on 230 acres of ground. The eight buildings used for trade 
purposes are valued at $115,000 and the industrial equipment at 
$51,000. No outside financial assistance is received by the school, 
the sole support of which is the income from the endowment fund of 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 79 

$1,575,812. AH schoolbooks and apparatus are furnished free of 
charge. In 1909-10, $5,800 was expended on materials for shop 
practice. 

The product of the school is not sold; it is up to the commercial 
standard and is used in so far as it is available to repair, improve, and 
extend the buildings and equipment. Some of the buildings have 
been erected by the students. Throughout aU practical exercises the 
pupils are continually impressed with the fact that no interference 
with the outlined course Avill be permitted in order either to expedite 
or facilitate work, or to make undue use of any abihty or skiU of 
individual pupils. The school constantly emphasizes the fact that 
a commercial object in its work would result in keeping pupils on 
such processes as they could best execute, and, consequently, would 
either retard or arrest their development, which can be reached only 
by thorough knowledge and skill in all the phases of their trade. 

In the foundation deed the following is stated in reference to the 
status of the pupils of the Williamson School: "All scholars admitted 
to the school shall be bound as indentured apprentices to the trustees." 

WILMERDING SCHOOL OF INDUSTRIAL ARTS, SAN FRANCISCO, CAL. 

This school was founded in 1894 by the will of a San Francisco 
merchant. Under the will $400,000 was bequeathed to the regents 
of the University of California '' to establish and maintain a school, to 
be called the 'Wilmerding School of Industrial Arts,' to teach boys 
trades, fitting them to make a living with their hands, with little study 
and plenty of work." 

After mature deliberation the regents resolved to cooperate with 
the California School of Mechanical Arts, to avoid duplication of 
work in the two schools. They acquired lands and erected buildings 
near. by. An advisory board consisting of four members is chosen 
by the regents of the University of California. The first class was 
admitted January 8, 1900, and subsequent classes have been organ- 
ized at intervals of six months (July and January) of each year. 

The school is open to '^any earnest, industrious boy who wants to 
learn one of the building trades as an integral part of his education 
and preparation for life." It aims, however, to give something more 
than the mere equivalent of a workshop apprenticeship. Its gradu- 
ates must have a fair command of the English language; they must 
know enough of mathematics, drawing, and science to insure intelli- 
gent and progressive workmanship. 

Any boy who has completed the grammar grade is eligible for 
admission. Boys who have fuiished only the seventh grade will be 
admitted provided they are 16 years of age or over; the maximum 
age of admission is 21 years. 

The enrollment for the various courses is as follows: Carpentry, 
15; bricklaying, 8; plumbing and tinning, 24; electrical work, 60; 
cabinctmaking, 16; trade not yet determined, 60. 

The school also has a class in architectural drawing. The length 
of the school year is 40 weeks. The hours of attendance are from 
9 a. m. to 12 m. and from 12.45 to 4 p. m., Monday to Fridav, exc(M)t 
on Wednesday, when the afternoon session closes at 2.15. The daily 
program includes eight periods of 45 minutes each. During the lii*st 
two years four periods per day arc spent in the shops and four periods 



80 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

are devoted to academic instruction. During the last two years the 
academic instruction is gradually discontinued. 

The academic subjects consist of English, mathematics, science, 
drawing, and history. 

A student may select his trade immediately upon entering school, 
or he may defer selection for a period not exceeding two years. 
Whenever he begins his trade course he devotes all of his shop time to 
his chosen trade. 

If he chooses to defer selection of a trade, his preliminary course 
must include the regular academic subjects and must not include 
more than two lines of shop work at one time. He may change from 
one industrial department to another or he may begin a regular trade 
course at the beginning of a new term (July or January). Boys are 
encouraged to take some preliminary work in order to determine for 
what trade they have the greatest adaptability. 

The trade practice, teachers are men of experience both in the 
commercial practice of their trade and in teaching. 

The school furnishes all materials, and all products are the property 
of the school. The pupils may buy articles they have made at the 
cost of the materials. 

A certificate showing work done is given pupils who have com- 
pleted at least two years' work, and a diploma is given upon comple- 
tion of four years' work. About 20 per cent of pupils finish the four- 
year course. 

NATIONAL TRADE SCHOOLS, INDIANAPOLIS, IND. 

Agitation for the establishment of a trade school at Indianapolis 
was begun in 1903, and in March, 1904, the grounds of the United 
States arsenal were purchased with funds raised by popular sub- 
scription among citizens of Indianapolis and the friends of the 
Winona movement. In April, 1904, the Winona Technical Insti- 
tute was incorporated, and in September of the same year it was 
opened with departments of pharmacy, chemistry, electrical wiring, 
and a little later lithography and hou&e and sign painting were added. 
Other departments have been added from time to time. 

The school has for its purpose the teaching of the trades. On the 
assumption that no trade can be taught thoroughly without the 
actual shop conditions of commercial work, opportunity is given for 
shop practice on commercial work. This work is secured through 
the interest of manufactures who are willing to intrust parts of their 
own contracts to the school. While the school plans to give the 
pupils as much of this commercial work as possible, no work may be 
undertaken at the expense of the regular course of instruction. 

The school has been national in character, and in reaching decisions 
as to what subjects should be taught the authorities of the schools 
have conferred with the advisory boards of the various national 
employers' associations and with any other bodies directly inter- 
ested. An arrangement with several machine manufacturers gave 
the boys an opportunity to put in a part of their time working in 
commercial shops. 

In 1909 the school became so involved financially that it went 
into the hands of a receiver, who, at the time the school was visited, 
was engaged in reorganizing the school and reconstructing its policy. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 81 

It is expected to pass under the direction of the public-school authori- 
ties of Indianapolis, in which case it is proposed to levy a tax on the 
city of 3 cents on the $100, yielding an income of approximately 
$60,000 annually. 

Under the reorganization an extensive cooperative scheme is to be 
introduced, whereby pupils wiU have an opportunity to earn a part 
of their mamtenance while in school, as well as to get commercial shop 
practice. 

Any boy 16 years of age or over, who desires to learn one of the 
trades taught is accepted as a pupil. The school prefers, however, 
to take no boy under 18 years of age, on the ground that younger 
boys are too immature to grasp the work. It is preferred that the 
pupils enter at the beginning of a term, but they are received at any 
time during the year, provided there is a vacancy and that their 
entrance does not interfere with class work of other pupils. 

The trades taught are lithographing, printing, molding, machinists, 
bricklaying, tile and mantel setting, carpentry, painting and paper 
hanging, and pattern making. Courses m pharmacy and chemistry 
are also provided. 

The year 1909-10 was hardly a normal year in point of attendance, 
since, because of financial uncertainty, some of the courses were not 
given. The attendance in each course was as follows : Lithographing, 
44; printing, 93; molding, 29; bricklaying, 11; machinist, 25; tile and 
mantel setting, 13; carpentry, 1; and painting and paper hanging, 2. 
The number taking pattern making was not reported. 

The years in the courses vary. Printing, lithographing, molding, 
machinist, pattern making, and carpentry have in the past offered a 
two-years' course; painting and paper hanging a one-year's course; 
bricklaying, three-fourths year's course; and tile and mantel setting 
one-half year's course. Under the plan of reorganization the program 
in some departments will be materially changed. 

The amount of time devoted to the theoretical side of the trade 
differs widely in the different trades. Painting, bricklaying, car- 
pentry, and pattern making offer no strictly theoretical work; the 
other trades offer theoretical courses varying from 2 to 15i hours per 
week. 

In the lithographing course pupils in the first year devote 9 hours 
to theory and in the second year 15i hours to theory and get practical 
work in every branch of the trade, beginning with the rudiments of 
drawing on paper and stone, preparations of stones and plates, letter- 
ing and engraving, transferring, proving, and printing, and then 
moving through the various stages to the final production of the 
work on flat-bed and rotary lithographic presses. 

The department of lithography does all of the lithographic work for 
the school and in addition does as much commercial work as can bo 
handled. Many of the machines have been donated by manufacturers 
of lithographic machinery. 

The course in printing covers a preparatory course for pupils who 
have had no experience in printing, in which tne rudiments are taught 
and attention is given to the simpler forms of composing and press- 
room work, and a junior course for pupils who have had one or two 
years' experience in printing, and covers ordinary (lis]>lay hand com- 
position and presswork up to the more advanced ooiupjsil ion, iiupo- 

59608°— S. Doc. 936, 62-2 6 



82 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

sition, and presswork; and a senior course for pupils in the branch of 
printing for which they are best fitted. There is also a linotype course 
of eight weeks; pupils who have had no previous training in hand 
composition are required to take a short preparatory course in the 
composing room before entering the linotype course. Three hours 
per week are devoted to the theoretical side, history of printing, 
typography, and shop talks. In addition to the regular machine- 
operator instruction pupils receive sufficient traming to be able to 
take care of and repair the linotype machine. The school is equipped 
with power presses, linotype machines, and type for hand composition. 

The school of tile and mantel setting occupies a two-story build- 
ing. The space is cut up into booths, where each pupil has practice 
in tile laying and mantel setting. All of the tile work about the 
institution in lavatories, halls, etc., is done by the pupils. Actual 
working conditions are reproduced as nearly as possible, and prac- 
tice is given in every branch of the trade. One hour per week is 
given to history of the manufacture and use of tiles and one hour to 
shop talks. 

In the course in bricklaying, indoor practice J.s given in the various 
branches of the trade; pupils frequently have an opportunity to go 
outside of the school to work on buildings for pay. No time is given 
to theoretical work, except as it is incidental to practice. Fifty-two 
hours per week are given to shop practice. 

In the machinist's course the pupils in the first year devote 7 hours 
per week to the theoretical side, covering applied mathematics, 
mechanical drawing, and shop talks; in the second year 8 hours are 
given to machine design. Thirty-seven hours per week during the 
first year and 36 per week during the second year are devoted to 
practice. 

In the foundry, which prepares for the molding trade, 12 hours 
per week are given to theory covering chemistry, mechanical draw- 
ing (first year only), and shop talks, and 40 hours per week are given 
to shopwork. 

Pupils in painting and paper hanging give all of the time, 48 hours 
per week, to practice. They get considerable practice by doing the 
work of the institution and through the cooperation of the master 
painters of Indianapolis they get some commercial work. 

The carpentry course combines the theory with the practice work, 
which covers 52 hours per week. The shop is well equipped with 
tools and the work in the shop is to teach the fundamentals of the 
trade and to give the pupil a chance to learn the various uses of com- 
mercial machines used in the trade and the methods of ' 'getting out" 
various parts of material in house construction. 

Later in the course the pupil is taught how to lay out and construct 
centers and window frames; make, case, and hang doors; lap beams 
and set bridging in them; erect stud partitions and lay floormg. In 
addition, house construction is taught. The course is aimed to give 
each member of the class a varied amount of shop and construction 
work. In connection with this department a course in joinery and 
a course in practical pattern making are given. Patterns are made 
for the foundry department. 

In addition to the above courses there is a school of pharmacy, 
where a course in pharmaceutical chemistry fits boys for work in 
industrial chemistry and in manufacturing chemists' establishments. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 83 

The tuition fees vary in the different departments according to 
length of term and the instruction given. 

Pupils in the molding, printing, hthographing, machinist, and 
carpentry trades are required to deposit $5 for tools, which amount 
is restored to them if they return all tools in good order. Each pupil 
in the tile and mantel setting, painting and paper hanging, and brick- 
laying trades must purchase a set of tools. 

In each department there are a number of scholarships provided 
by manufacturers' associations for pupils who are unable to meet 
the tuition. The scholarship amounts to a loan, which is to be repaid 
by the pupils within ^ve years after graduation. 

School IS in session throughout the year. The majority of the sev- 
eral departments are in session from 8 a. m. to 5 p. m., with an hour 
at noon, Monday to Friday, and on Saturday, 8. a. m. till noon. 

Comparatively few textbooks are used, tne most of the work being 
practical shopwork. For reference books the various trade journals 
furnish the chief supply. In addition, there is a reference library at 
the disposal of the pupils. 

A diploma stating course taken and kind and grade of work 
done is given for completed courses. Certificates stating merely 
the amount of work done are given for fractional courses. It is 
estimated that at least 40 per cent of the pupils leave before the 
completion of a course. In some cases they have completed some 
specific branch of it; in others they have merely gained information 
enough to enable them to get a job. 

During 1909-10 fourteen trade teachers were employed. Prac- 
tically all of them were men from the trades and were in general 
nominated by the National Manufacturers' Association. Most of 
the teachers had had little or no teaching experience prior to that 
at Winona, but had had from 5 to 30 years' experience as mechanics. 
There has been little trouble in retaining teachers. 

Labor unions in the past have been hostile to the institution, but 
under the new management there probably will be some cooperation 
of the trade unions with the authorities of the school. 

Under the regime of the Winona assembly there was a board of 
50 directors; seven were ministers, two were attorneys; the rest 
represented various manufacturing interests throughout the coun- 
try; each department had an advisory committee from the employ- 
ers' organization of the trade it teaches. The reorganized board is 
Elanned to have nine members, two of whom are to be appointed 
y the governor of the State; two, one of whom must be a labor 
man, by the mayor of Indianapolis; one by the commercial club of 
the city; one by the board of trade; one by the merchants' associa- 
tion, and two by the school board. 

The grounds and buildings purchased from the Government were 
valued at $29,990.34. Since that time the foundry building, costing 
$10,090.55, has been added. The present worknig outfit of all 
departments is valued at $135,000, of which an equi])ment valued at 
$85,000 was furnished by the institute, and an equi])mont valued at 
$50,000 was furnished by various manufacturers' organizations. 

During the past year employers' associations have given $11,623 
toward the suppoit of the school; and $5,857 more was given by local 
employers and by other people interested, while additional funds 
were made up by tuition fees, etc. 



84 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

The machine shop, foundry, printing, lithographing, and pattern- 
making departments make a marketable product. For the past year 
receipts from the output were approximately as follows: Foundry, 
$18,000; printing, $6,000; lithographing, $3,000; machine shojp, 
$7,200; pattern making, $5,000. 

This work is almost entirely order work. No work is done for the 
open market, but is made up as ordered. 

Pupils engaged in commercial work are paid for their time. In the 
foundry department boys are paid 8 cents per hour from the start, 
advancing 1 cent per hour each quarter until the course is completed. 
They earn from $4.20 to $12 per week. In the machine-shop depart- 
ment they work piece rate and earn from $3 to $10 per week. In the 
printing and lithography departments earnings are very irregular. 

The unions have agreed to support the reorganized National Trade 
School on condition that neither employers nor workmen will in any 
way involve the school in disputes between capital and labor, that 
the employers will not use the school as a strike-breaking institution, 
that the school will not allow its pupils to go to any place where a 
strike is under way for the purpose of breaking the strike, and that 
if any pupil shall do so he will be debarred from ever returning to the 
institution. 

CARNEGIE TECHNICAL SCHOOLS! SCHOOL OF APPLIED INDUSTRIES,^ 

PITTSBURGH, PA. 

This school is a part of the Carnegie Technical Schools. A tender 
of the money with which to establish technical schools for both sexes 
was made to the city of Pittsburgh in 1900, on condition that the city 
provide a site of ample size for future extension. In compliance with 
this stipulation a tract of 32 acres of land adjoining Schenley Park, 
near the Carnegie Library and Institute building, was purchased by 
the city in 1903 as a location for the schools. The first group of 
buildings was completed and opened to pupils in October, 1905, addi- 
tional departments being organized as new buildings were made ready 
for occupancy. Funds for buildings and equipment have been sup- 
plied by the founder as needed from time to time, in addition to which 
he has increased his original gift of $1,000,000 to a present endowment 
of $7,000,000. 

In the School of Applied Industries young men who desire to enter 
industrial work are assisted to select a congenial trade and are given 
practical instruction not only in that trade but in the closely allied 
subjects, thereby preparing them to start in as competent workmen 
who are soon able to obtain recognition as journeymen. Older men 
who are already engaged in a chosen trade may obtain in the school 
such additional information relating to their work as will increase 
their efficiency and consequent earning power. Special emphasis is 
placed on the fact that, besides the possession of mere skiU, it is essen- 
tial for a man to concern himself with right living and good citizenship 
in order to be permanently successful. 

The school is open to both day and evening pupils. The day 
courses are offered primarily to meet the existing demand for pro- 
ficient men in the machinery and building trades, where a reason- 

1 Formerly School for Apprentices and Journeymen. 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 85 

able amount of technical information and trained intelligence is 
essential. Two courses are given in the day school — a regular 
industrial course extending over two or three years according to the 
ability and progress of the pupil, and a short course which may be 
finished in one school year. The regular course is intended for young 
men who present evidence of good scholarship, but who lack practi- 
cal experience and whose age warrants the expenditure of time to 
lay a broad foundation for trade w^ork. It deals with the sciences 
fundamental to all trades and includes practice in the various shops. 
Its aim is to carry a young man through the fundamentals of a 
selected trade and at the same time to give him practical instruction 
in subjects which are closely related to the trade. The short course 
is for men of maturer age who possess considerable experience in a 
trade and who desire to confine their efforts to improving themselves 
in that trade only, with a minimum amount of attention to related 
subjects. It is particularly advantageous to young men approach- 
ing their majority who have served the larger part of their appren- 
ticeship and w^ho wish to enter the field of skilled labor with more 
training than the shop generally gives to an apprentice. A course 
for teachers, designed to meet the growing demand for men to take 
charge of departments in manual training and trade schools, is also 
offered. 

The opportunities for employment in the vast iron and steel 
industries of Pittsburgh and vicinity determine to a large extent 
the nature of the school. The subjects taught have been selected by 
the faculty after a careful consideration of what is needed to satisfy 
the demand for skilled workers in the local field, where a phenomenal 
development of the manufacturing and building industries has 
occurred in recent years. On October 28, 1909, the enrollment by 
trades in the regular day course was as follows: Bricklaying, 10; 
electric wiring, 44; forging,* 3; foundry work, 8; machinists, 36; 
pattern making, 14; plumbing, 14; stationary engineers, 18. In 
addition, 82 boys were receiving instruction in mechanical drawing 
only, much of which was closely correlated with trade work. On 
the same date there were 7 advanced pupils who were taking the 
full machinist's coui*se in one year, and 3 advanced pupils who were 
taking the full plumbing course in one year, with 6 pupils in the 
short drawing course. 

All apphcants for admission to the school are subjected to a per- 
sonal interview in order to discover their adaptabihty to the course 
selected. Applicants are either approved or disapproved as a result 
of this interview, but an applicant who is not approved may be 
admitted on probation for one term, after which he is dropped unless 
a creditable standing in his studies has been made. Candidates for 
admission are also required to submit letters from teachers in high 
or manual-training schools which they may have attended, or letters 
from previous employers giving evidence of experience in shop or 
trade work. There is no fixed age Umit on school entrance. It is 
recognized that some vocations demand more maturity than others. 
Two factors govern in determining the age at which an individual 
pupil may be admitted: First, the amount of preparation that the 
applicant has acquired in other schools; and, second, the character 
or the environment he must face on leaving the school. Sixteen 
years is regaided as the earliest age at which a pupil can fully appro- 



86 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

ciate the responsibility and the intensity of his work, and this is 
usually accepted as the minimuni for school entrance. No maxi- 
mum age limit has been fixed. In the short course, except in rare 
cases, applicants must be at least 20 years of age. Pupils are re- 
ceived at any time during the school year, but are encouraged to 
enter at the beginning of the term. As a rule no work for wages 
outside the school is done by day pupils during the school year. 
During vacation periods, however, pupils are encouraged to seek 
employment in hues of work similar to the courses pursued in the 
school. A bureau organized especially for that purpose assists 
pupils and graduates to obtain congenial employment. 

The theoretical subjects for study in the regular day courses are 
chemistry of materials, drawing, English, mathematics (including 
arithmetic, algebra, plane and solid geometry, and plane trigo- 
nometry), principles of mechanism, and estimates and cost. In 
addition, pupils devote about one hour per week during a part of the 
school course to a study of the laws of hygiene. Pupils taking the 
short course have instruction in mechanical drawing and mathematics. 
In the regular courses the time given to theory and to practice work 
varies greatly among the different trade subjects and the different 
stages of each course. For stationary engineers the preponderance 
of time is given to theory throughout the entire course, while in other 
trades, as bricklaying and plumbing, practice work receives the greater 
attention after the first term. For machinists, pattern making, 
forging, and foundry work the aggregate time devoted to shopwork 
during the course only slightly exceeds that given to theory. In the 
two short courses taken by pupils in 1909-10, viz, machinist and 
plumbing, 8 hours were devoted to theory and 22 hours to practice 
during each week. 

In the day school the regular hours of instruction are from 9 a. m. 
to 5 p. m., with one hour for luncheon, from Monday to Friday, 
inclusive, but individual pupils are not required to remain during 
the entire time the school is in session. No pupils have less than 30 
hours per week, while some have as much as 34 hours, depending on 
the course taken. The school year was originally divided into two 
terms of 15 weeks each, from the 1st of October to the middle of May, 
approximately. In 1909-10 the school was in session 32 weeks and 
in the future the school year will embrace 34 weeks. No summer 
term is provided. Two weeks of vacation are given pupils at Christ- 
mas and the usual legal holidays are observed. 

Graduates from the regular course, either day or evening, receive 
a certificate of graduation from the school. Pupils who complete 
any portion or all of the work of the short course are given a letter 
by the dean of the school, setting forth the work done and the pro- 
ficiency attained. About 35 or 40 per cent of pupils are reported as 
leaving school before the completion of their courses, the greater 
number of whom drop out during or soon after the first year. Most 
of the withdrawals are occasioned by the obtainment of employment 
by pupils. 

During the year 1909-10 there were 21 teachers who gave trade 
instruction in the day course. Of these all but 1 taught the theory 
of a trade, while 12 of the number were instructors in shopwork. 
In addition there were 2 teachers of English, 1 of whom taught 
specifications and contracts. Of 20 teachers of trade subjects, 17 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 8? 

had attended other than common schools, 16 had practical experience 
in the trade taught, and 18 had previous experience in teaching the 
trade. Five teachers reported experience in supervisory school work. 

In common with the other units of the Carnegie Technical Schools 
system the School of Applied Industries is under the board of trus- 
tees of Carnegie Institute. A committee from the board has general 
supervision over all matters pertaining to the school's management 
and control. The officers of administration of the four Carnegie 
technical schools are the director, secretary, registrar, the dean of 
each school, the bursar, the supervisor of equipment, and others. 
The practical administration of the affairs of the four schools is in 
the hands of this body. 

The income of the school, both day and evening sessions, from all 
sources in 1909-10 was about $75,000, the major portion coming from 
the general endowment fund provided by the founder. In the day 
school the tuition fee to residents of Pittsburgh is $20 per annum and 
to others, $30. In addition, a general fee of $10 is collected to defray 
partly the cost of instructional material, the depreciation of labor- 
atory and shop apparatus, and incidental supplies. A breakage 
deposit of $3 is required of each pupil, the unused portion of which, 
less 50 cents for locker rental, is returned at the end of the year. 
Pupils are required to furnish their own schoolbooks, but are permitted 
to take out without charge for home use circulating volumes from 
the Carnegie Library, which is located but a short distance from the 
school. 

Approximately $13,000 were expended for materials used in trade 
instruction in the day and night schools during the year 1909-10. 
Nothing that is produced in the schools, however, is offered for sale, 
the articles manufactured, such as hand tools, patterns, castings, 
cabinetwork, etc., being either applied to school use or reduced to 
stock. A number of power machines built by pupils are in e very-day 
use in the school shops. 

The regular day course has been arranged primarily to meet the 
needs of young men who desire a broad industrial education in order 
to equip themselves for positions as foremen, inspectors, assistant 
master mechanics, assistant superintendents, etc., in the manufactur- 
ing and building trade industries. At the same time the executive 
side of the instruction is not stressed, the aim being to direct pupils 
into the skilled manual vocations, where in course of time they may 
rise to higher positions, rather than to prepare them for such positions 
immediately. The short day course and the evening courses are 
primarily for improvement in the trade selected or followed by the 
pupil. Graduates from these courses are soon able to do the work 
of journeymen. No difficulty in obtaining positions is experienced. 

EVENING SCHOOL. 

The evening courses are intended primarily for those who are 
working at a trade. In the formation of classes preference is given 
to men already at work, as it is reci^gnized that they are in a position 
to make the best use of the instruction given. The usual time 
required to complete a course is four years, but advanced pupils finish 
a four-years' course in two years. Stationary engineers have three 
years of instruction and painters have two years. 



88 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 

The regular evening courses were opened January 7, 1906. The 
enrollment by trades on November 7, 1909, was as follows: Brick- 
laying, 21; electric wiring, 55 ; forging, 19; foundry work, 19; heating 
and ventilating, 9; house painting and graining, 8; machinists, 67; 
pattern making, 28; plumbing, 74; sheet-metal and cornice working, 
25; sign painting, 24; stationary engineers, 23. In addition 80 pupils 
were studying mechanical drawing only. 

The curriculum of shop practice followed in the evening school is 
identical with that of the day session, as far as the limited time will 
permit. At the same time, in the arrangement of evening courses a 
considerable amount of practice work by the pupil in his daily voca- 
tion is presupposed. 

The school is in session five evenings each week, from Monday to 
Friday, inclusive. The school year, containing 26 weeks, usually 
begins on the second Monday in October and ends on the last Friday 
in April. Thirty-one teachers were employed in 1909-10. Of these, 
28 were teachers of trade subjects, either theory or practice, or both. 
A majority of these teachers also gave instruction in the day school. 

DAVID RANKEN, JR., SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL TRADES, ST. LOUIS, MO. 

This institution was endowed and established in 1907 and opened 
in 1909. It was founded on the assumption that the public schools 
and other educational institutions not only had failed to provide 
training in mechanical trades, but had tended to draw boys away 
from the consideration of them by the creation of a prejudice against 
manual labor. Boys who could have succeeded as mechanics were 
in consequence caused to engage in pursuits either already over- 
crowded or for which the}^ had no aptitude. The founder believed 
that there was a need of an institution to provide education in the 
ordinary mechanical trades and to inculcate an appreciation of the 
dignity of labor. He stipulated that the trades taught should be 
those in which there is a demand for practical workmen in the com- 
munity and in the State. 

The institution has three separate schools — a day school, an even- 
ing school, and a day cooperative school. The institution aims to 
give the boy without experience training similar to that received by 
the apprentice, to give the apprentice such instruction as will round 
out nis shopw^ork, and to give the journeyman information con- 
cerning his trade that is not given in his shop. It also aims to secure 
the cooperation of manufacturers who acknowledge the limitations 
of shop instruction and who will send their apprentices to the school 
to study the theory of their trade. 

For admission to the day or evening school candidates must be 
white males, 15 years of age or over, who have completed the sixtK 
grade of the public schools or its equivalent. An exception is made 
in the day school for the admission of boys 14 years of age who have 
completed the work of the sixth grade of the public school or its 
equivalent and who are physically qualified for the work and show 
particular aptitude for trade instruction. All applicants must be 
in good physical condition and furnish a certificate of good moral 
character. Any applicant who has had trade experience but who 
lacks the educational qualities may make up the latter in special 
classes formed by the schools for preparatory instruction. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOISr. 89 

In the day school the trades taught and the number enrolled in 
each in January, 1910, were as follows: Carpentry, 15; bricklaying, 
7; plumbing, 19; painting, 6; stationary engineers, 6. Pattern 
making is included in the list of trades offered, but as yet no pupils 
have elected it. 

In the evening school the enrollment was as follows : Plumbing, 40 ; 
carpentry, 9; bricklaying, 10; painting, 10. 

In the cooperative school 30 machinists' apprentices studied mathe- 
matics and drafting. 

The full courses for the day and evening schools have not yet been 
formulated. Some changes are in progress by which the theoretical 
work, which covers drafting and mathematics, will include elementary 
science and building theory. Day-school courses cover two years, 
but are to be extended to three years. The evening-school courses 
are indefinite. 

Drafting and mathematics require seven hours each per week in the 
day school. These subjects are required of all day pupils, but are 
elective by the evening pupils. If elected, two evenings of two and 
one-half hours each are devoted to them. Pupils may elect shop 
practice for two or four evenings, may take two evenings for practice 
and two for theory, or may elect theory alone for two evenings. 

The shops are well equipped with tools and materials for the various 
trades. 

The school year for day pupils covers a period of 46 weeks, extend- 
ing from September to August. The year is divided into three terms, 
beginning m September, January, and April, respectively. The 
evening-school year covers two terms of 12 weeks each, beginning in 
October and in January. 

Day-school sessions are held from 8.20 a. m. to 12 m. and from 1 to 
4.40 p. m. from Monday to Friday, inclusive. On Saturdays the 
sessions are from 8.20 a. m. to 12 m. Evening classes are held from 
7.30 to 10 p. m. from Mondays to Thursdays, inclusive. 

As the trade instruction is almost entirely individual, pupils, except 
those who are taking the stationary engineer's course, may enter at 
any time. Practically all of the pupils in the evening school are 
actively engaged in the trade, the theory or practice of which they 
study in the school. 

Nominal tuition is charged, so that pupils will appreciate the oppor- 
tunity offered and because of some sacrifice to pay for it wall take it 
seriously. The chaise for tuition eliminates to a considerable extent 
an undesirable element that otherwise drifts in and out of schools 
without a definite purpose of completing any course. The charge for 
tuition is $30 per year, or $10 per term, for the day-school courses. 
For the evening-school courses $5 per term for two evenings per week, 
or $10 per term for four evenings is charged. Pupils are required to 
provide their own d^a^\^ng instruments, paper, and other small inci- 
dentals. Tools and supplies in the shops are furnished by the school. 

No textbooks are used as yet. A reference library in process of 
formation contains a few books on technical subjects and some trade 
magazines. The pupils use drawings and blue ])rints in connection 
with their work in the shop. 

For a completed course a dii)loma is given. Upon request a state- 
ment of work done and the instructor's estimate of the pupil's pro- 
ficiency will be given for any partial course. 



90 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION". 

The decision as to the election of trades rests largely with the 
superintendent, whose suggestions are subject to approval by the 
board of trustees. 

The board of trustees is a self-perpetuating body of eight members, 
whose four officers are elected annually. This board annually elects 
an advisory committee of not more than 15 members. The governor, 
the attorney general of the State, and the mayor of St. Louis are 
members ex officio of this committee. 

The grounds cover about 3 acres, on which a 3-story brick building, 
the first of a group, has been erected. This building contains six 
shops, a drafting room, science room, library, classroom, and offices. 

The institution has an endowment fund of $3,000,000. The build- 
ing cost $170,000 and its equipment $9,000. The expenditures for 
shop materials for both day and evening classes in 1909-10 amounted 
to $5,500, and for janitor service, heat, light, and power to $3,000. 
No outside financial assistance is received. 

There are seven instructors, all of whom teach in the three 
schools. Two are college graduates in engineering, one having had 
five and one six years' shop experience. One of these teaches draft- 
ing and mathematics, the other drafting and practical steam engi- 
neering. Five instructors, with from 8 to 37 years' experience in 
their trades as journeymen, foremen, or as men in business for them- 
selves, teach, shop practice. 

Considerable appreciation of the school has been shown by work- 
men, by contractors, and by associations of manufacturers, as well as 
by men and boys employed during the day who attend the evening 
classes. The attitude of the public in general is favorable to the 
school, but this attitude so far is merely an expression of good will, 
since there have been no means as yet of determining its value as a 
trade institution through the work of any graduate. The employers 
whose apprentices are in the cooperative classes have expressed them- 
selves as pleased with the results, but as yet this arrangement is in its 
experimental stage. 

Industrial Education for Girls. 

The aim in the industrial education of girls is a double aim, viz: 

Preparation for an occupation for immediate self support, and 

Preparation for home life. 

These two aims must be kept in proper balance. Any system of 
industrial education for girls will be inadequate that does not provide 
for both aims. 

Ability to earn money is of such prime importance to the young 
girl that she has little inclination for domestic life or the training 
which will be of vital importance to her later in her life. 

Since most women who engage in wage-earning industries (as well 
as others) are at least potentially wives and mothers, training for 
housekeeping and home management is believed to be an essential 
part of all their education, whether it be industrial or general. 

But since a large proportion of the girls now leaving school at 
fourteen must prepare to earn their living by industry, the prime 
interest of the school pupil is likely to center upon training for wage- 
earning occupations. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATI0:N". 91 

The vital importance of domestic education for girls does not 
change the fact that the progress of such education depends largely 
upon the sentimental attitude of young people toward this kind of 
work as a vocation. 

A high standard of skill and knowledge of housekeeping in all its 
branches and details is of such far-reaching effect upon the future 
of any community that every effort should be made to shape public 
opinion toward a true appreciation of its importance and dignity. 

Women and girls are employed in mechanical occupations con- 
nected with very many industries in the country, and these occupa- 
tions of women are not only affecting industry but the standards of 
womanhood and the home. 

It is therefore of the utmost importance that young girls who must 
work in shops and factories be trained for occupations which do not 
prevent development or incapacitate them for future mothers and 
home makers. 

It is believed that much can be accomplished in establishing day 
and evening schools for domestic science by having the equipments 
adequately adapted to the requirements. For instance, pupils should 
learn cooking, housework, and household management in kitchens 
and rooms in every respect typical of real conditions in homes of 
various grades of economy and incomes of various amounts. And 
the girl who wants to become an expert scientific cook or housekeeper 
should be taught with highly improved and perfected equipment. 

If it should be thought by anyone that the comparative importance 
of industrial training did not depend so much upon the number of 
workers as upon the character of the work itself, it would seem most 
reasonable to consider the scientific conditions underlying the nature 
of good food preparation as influencing right living and good health ; 
also the importance of good housekeeping and wise home management 
as influencmg thrift among our working people and good citizenship 
throughout the country. 

The home training of girls may be accomplished in two ways: 

First. By such specific training for this as is compatible with 
the trade instruction, and 

Second. By having trade schools for specific domestic training, 
with courses both for pupils who may aim to make a wage-earning 
vocation of housekeeping in all its branches, and for those who wish 
to become thoroughly prepared to conduct homes of their own. 

Such courses would include considerable academic and scientific 
schooling. 

Whichever course is pursued there is sure to follow a very important 
reaction on the home irom the added intelligence, higher ideals and 
greater earning capacity of the graduate of such industrial schools. 

With girls, as with boys, the time in life when general education 
ceases to appeal to them is between the fourteenth and sixteenth 
years, and at these ages a large percentage of girls enter the less 
skilled occupations. 

Girls usually remain at work from five to eight years, during which 
time their social scale, their standard of efficiency, and the type of 
their future homes arc largely determined. 

Opportunities for industrial education for girls or even industrial 
schools that offer industrial coui*ses which aim directly to fit girls 
for specific occupations arc not numerous. However, the interest in 



92 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

those which, have been established is manifested both by a definite 
movement for the organization of other schools and by their influence 
on the economic and social problems of wage-earning women. The 
need of a study not only of the schools, but also of the local 
industrial conditions under which women work, is essential before 
organizing industrial schools for girls in any community. Investiga- 
tions for the opportunities for women in various vocations have been 
limited in scope, and few in number, but where such investigations 
have been made the information secured has been exceedingly 
valuable. In many instances the general conviction that girls should 
have, or were demanded to have, some vocational training has led 
to the introduction of dressmaking and millinery, with but little 
knowledge of the local conditions of work, wages, hours, chances 
of employment, and opportunities in the industry. It is especially 
noticeable that dressmaking and millinery are almost the only trade 
courses offered to girls at the present time. 

In schools of the elementary "short-time" type the usual purpose 
is to prepare girls of the poorer classes to become self-supporting as 
quickly as possible. The class of pupils for which these schools were 
established is especially characteristic of the larger cities; a large 
percentage have not gone bayond the fifth year in the grammar school. 

The advanced "short-time" schools are somewhat different in their 
general characteristics from the other types. The pupils pay a tuition 
fee, and they are usually older and better able to profit by the instruc- 
tion given. The school work is offered in courses so that a pupil 
may take as much or as little as is desired, but these courses are 
fitted to the actual needs of the pupils for whom they are designed. 

The third group of schools offers longer and more theoretical 
instruction bit of a less pronounced trade character than that of 
either of the above types. Among this latter group are public high 
schools with day courses for industrial training, whose entrance 
requirements often include graduation from the grammar schools, 
and their courses are usually three or four years in length. 

The fourth group of schools includes evening schools for women 
and girls; some of these are public schools and some philanthropic. 
The courses offered are for girls and women who are employed during 
the day. Much of the work in them appeals particularly to girls 
who want it for home use; many of those entering upon such courses 
do so because of a definite prospect of marriage and are taking it in 
preparation for housekeeping. 

The following schools are representative of the several types men- 
tioned above: 

Elementary slwrt-time schools. — Manhattan Trade School for 
Girls, New York, N. Y.; Girls' Trade School, Boston, Mass.; Mil- 
waukee School of Trades for Girls, Milwaukee, Wis. • Clara de Hirsch 
Trade School, New York, N. Y. ; Pascal Institute, New York, N. Y. ; 
Chicago Girls' Trade School, Chicago, 111.; Jewish Kitchen Garden 
Association and Trade School for Girls, Cincinnati, Ohio; Hebrew 
Technical School for Girls, New York, N. Y. 

Advanced short-time schools. — Pratt Institute: School of House- 
hold Science and Arts, Brooklyn, N. Y. ; Drexel Institute: Depart- 
ment of Domestic Arts, Philadelphia, Pa.; Temple University: 
Department of Domestic Art, Philadelphia, Pa.; Mechanics' Insti- 
tute: Department of Domestic Science and Art, Rochester, N. Y. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 93 

Public Thigh schools with day courses. — High School of Practical 
Arts, Boston, Mass.; Washington Irving High School, New York, 
N. Y. 

Evening schools. — New York Evening High School for Women, 
New York, N. Y.; Cincinnati Evening School, Cincinnati, Ohio; 
Evening High School for Women, Philadelphia, Pa. ; Carnegie 
Technical Schools: Margaret Morrison Carnegie School (evening 
courses), Pittsburg, Pa. 

Schools for Negroes. 

In any presentation or discussion of the schools for negroes it 
must be understood that in general such schools embrace two types, 
i. e., schools that train for industrial occupations and schools that 
train for the teaching profession. The leading exponent of the 
latter is Hampton Institute, Hampton, Va., while Tuskegee Insti- 
tute, at Tuskegee, Ala., can be considered as showing preference 
for the former. However, the primary motive of either does not in 
any way preclude the alternative, as each school plans to equip its 
pupils to become efficient trade workers as well as teachers. 

As to the aim of these schools, in so far as girls are concerned the 
primary purpose is the education of girls to fit them for home makers 
rather than for trade or industrial occupations. 

The few industrial schools for negroes in the North aim to fit 
almost exclusively for trades or to adapt the negro to the conditions 
of life in the city. 

For the purposes of this report there is presented a description of 
the two tjrpes mentioned above, which amply shows a general educa- 
tional scheme of each individual type. 

HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTE, HAMPTON, VA. 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, a school for Negroes 
and Indians, located at Hampton, Va., stands for varied activities. 
It comprehends a normal training school, an agricultural school, and 
a department called the ''trade school." The last-named depart- 
ment is the only one which comes within the scope of this report. 

Hampton Institute was founded in 1868 for the purpose of pro- 
viding a practical education for children of ex-slaves. Ten years 
later, by contract with the Federal Government, Indian pupils 
(limited to 120) were admitted. These Indians pupils are on a some- 
what different basis from the Negroes, being there as wards of the 
Government. 

The institute is neither a Federal, State, nor denominational school. 
The funds for its maintenance are obtained chiefly from gifts and 
bequests of private individuals. In 1870 it was chartered by a 
special act of the General Assembly of Virginia, and thus became an 
independent organization, controlled by a self-perpetuating board of 
trustees from various sections of the country, the secretary of this 
board being the executive head of the institute. The department for 
trade instruction has no specific bequest, but draws upon the general 
fund for such financial aid as is needed. 

During the year 1909-10, 241 students were enrolled in the trade 
classes as follows: Twenty-eight blacksmiths, 44 bricklayers and plas- 



94 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

terers, 49 carpenters, 10 cabinetmakers, 13 machinists, 10 painters, 8 
printers, 8 shoemakers, 17 steam fitters and plumbers, 37 tailors, 2 
tinsmiths, 1 upholsterer, 14 wheelwrights. 

Hampton's primary function is to train up leaders among the 
Negro race, and the selection of students is made with this end in 
view. Candidates for admission must be at least 17 years of age 
and must pass an examination in arithmetic, English, and geography. 
Before a boy is admitted to the trade classes he must have completed 
at least one-half the academic work of the ^^ junior" or first-year 
class. In addition to fulfilling the mental requirements, aU appU- 
cants for admission to the institution must pass a physical examina- 
tion and must furnish evidence of good character. No pupils are 
admitted after the opening date except by special dispensation of 
the faculty, which is granted only in extreme cases. 

Pupils are admitted to the trade classes only as vacancies occur. 
An applicant for whom there is no vacancy ma}' do one of two things : 
Enter the regular day school and defer liis trade training until the 
next year, or he may enter the ''work class" and obtain his academic 
instruction in the evening school. This ''work class" is for pupils 
who need to earn money \vith which to meet expenses later in the 
course. The work done is not trade work, but an}^ work of the 
institution, skilled or unskilled, needing to be done that the boy is 
qualified to do. Pupils usually earn from $15 to $20 per month 
during a "work year." 

In addition to this, pupils who are not in the "work class" or 
trade classes have one day per week on which they work" for the 
institution and are credited therefor. In such cases they work at 
whatever labor is to be done at the school. 

The trade course covers a period of three years. A certificate is 
given for the completion of the trade course, but no diploma is 
awarded unless the equivalent of the four years' academic work also 
has been completed. 

When a pupil enters the trade classes he also enters evening academic 
classes at that point for wliich Ms previous schoohng has prepared 
him, and continues tliis course as long as he remains in scliool. So 
pupils of different grades of academic advancement \^'ill often be 
found in the same trade class. 

Great emphasis is placed upon the teaching of civics, both in the 
classroom and in the shop. Constant precept and example serve to 
supplement and drive home the lessons brought out in classroom dis- 
cussion. The danger of impulsive and uncontrolled action, whether 
in social, religious, or political matters, is emphasized on all occasions. 

Every trade pupil devotes eight hours per day for six days of each 
week to his trade, including drawing, and two hours to academic work 
on five evenings of the week, from October 1 to June 1. During the 
summer months he has no academic work, but devotes nine hours 
per day to commercial work at his trade. 

In order to give the pupils the best experience possible, as much 
commercial work is taken in each department as can be advanta- 
geously handled. As soon as a pupil is sufficiently skilled he is put on 
Eroductive work under the direction of the instructor; for such work 
e receives compensation. 

An additional school building was erected during the past year on 
which practically all of the bricklaying, tinsmithing, plastering, 
steam fitting, and painting was done by the pupils in those several 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 



95 



trades under the superintendence of instructors. All of the building 
operations on the grounds and the repair work on the 135 buildings 
give practical experience to all building trades pupils. What is true 
of the building trades is true in other departments, all of the trade 
work of the institution being done by pupil labor. In order to avoid 
any tendency to speciaHzation, only a limited amount of commercial 
work of. any one kind is taken. 

An attempt is made to turn out not only a mechanic, but an all- 
around workman, who when thrown upon his own resources can meet 
an emergency. For example, the carpentry pupil is given supple- 
mentary instruction in the allied trades, as bricklaying, plastering, 
painting, tinsmithing, and wood turning, so that if called upon to do 
so, he can do all the work of repairing a house. 

Twenty-four teachers of trade subjects were employed in 1909-10. 
Two of these were teachers of theory (mechanical and free-hand 
drawing) . These men were pupils at trade schools and later were em- 
ployed in trade work. The other 22 were teachers of practice trade 
work. Eight teachers had received some instruction beyond that 
of the public schools, and 17 were employed on account of their 
trade experience. All but 1 of the men teaching trade subjects had 
had from 1 to 8 years' experience in the trades. 

The schools named in the following table comprise all the prin- 
cipal educational efforts to advance the negro in both academic and 
vocational opportunities: 

Schools for negroes. 



Name of schools. 



State Agricultural and Mechanical College 

Snow Hill Normal and Industrial Institute 

Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute 

Lincohi High School 

Armstrong Manual Training School: 

Day school 

Evening school 

Alcorn Agricultural and Mechanical College 

Manual Training and Industrial School for 
Colored Youth. 

Henrietta Trade School 

Industrial Evening School 

High Point Normal and Industrial School 

Berean Manual Trainingand Industrial School: 

Day school 

Evening school 

Avery College Training School 



Watchman Industrial School 

Voorhees Industrial School 

Mayesville Industrial and Educational Institute 

Claflin University 

Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute. . . 

St. Paul Normal and Industrial School 



Location. 



Normal, Ala 

Snow Hill, Ala 

Tuskegee, Ala 

Fort Smith, Ark.. 

Washington, D. C. 

do 

Alcorn, Miss 

Borden town, N. J. 

New York, N. Y. . 

do 

High Point, N.C. 

Philadelphia, Pa.. 
do 

Pittsburgh (Alle- 
gheny), Pa. 
Providence, R. I.. 

Denmark, S. C 

Mayesville, S. C... 
Orangeburg, S. C. 
Hampton, Va 



Year of 
estab- 
lish- 
ment. 



1875 
1894 

1902 

1901 
1902 
1878 
1894 

1909 
1905 
1891 

1899 
1899 
1849 

1908 
1897 
1885 
1883 
1868 



Lawrenceville, Va. i < 1883 



Class of school. 



Public 

Philanthropic 

....do 

Public 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

Philanthropic 

Public 

Philanthropic 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 

....do 



Day or 
evening 
school. 



Day. 
Do. 
Do.2 
Do. 

Do. 
Evening. 
Day. 

Do. 

Evening. 

Do. 
Day. 

Do. 
Evening. 
Day. 

Evening. 
Day. 

Do. 

Do. 
Day and 

evening. 

Do. 



1 Sewing, 1883; carpentry, 1884; other trades, 1886 to 1906. 

2 Also has evening academic classes. 



« Indians admitted in 1878. 
* Opened in 1884. 



TUSKEGEE NORMAL AND INDUSTRIAL INSTITUTE, TUSKEGEE, ALA. 



This school was established by an act of the Alabama Legislature 
in 1880 as the Tuskegee Normal School. Its first session was opened 
July 4, 1881, in a rented shanty, with 30 pupils and 1 teacher. In 



96 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

1893 the institution was incorporated as the Tuskegee Normal and 
Industrial Institute. 

The object of the school is to provide young colored men and women 
an opportunity to gain a sound moral, hterary, and industrial train- 
ing. It is expected that every Tuskegee graduate will become a 
factor in the moral and industrial upHft of his community. 

The method of instruction employed aims to correlate and combine 
the academic studies and industrial training in such a way as to 
emphasize the social and moral significance of skilled labor and at the 
same time illustrate in the shop the practical meaning of the more 
abstract teaching of the classroom. 

During the first session of the institute the present location, consist- 
ing at that time of 100 acres with three small buildings thereon, was 
purchased. Now the plant consists of 2,345 acres of land and 100 
buildings. There also remain 20,176 acres of public land unsold from 
the 25,500 acres granted by act of Congress for the aid of the school. 
The endowment fund amounted to $1,401,440.77 on May 31, 1910. 

The affairs of the institution are administered by an executive 
council of 18 members, consisting of the principal, treasurer, and the 
heads of the several school departments. There is also an advisory 
board made up of business and professional men from all parts of the 
country. It is only with the industrial phase of the school that this 
report is concerned. 

The industrial work is housed in the Slater- Armstrong Memorial 
Trades Building, which measures 283 by 315 feet in its greatest 
dimensions. 

The subjects taught are determined by the executive council, 
bearing in mind the characteristics of the race with which they are 
dealing, the trades open to the Negro, and the needs of ths race to 
develop the best that is in them. 

Apprenticeships, as a rule, are not open to the Negro youth, so 
pupils must be prepared to do a journeyman's work upon graduation. 
The school aims to fit pupils for aU trades which are open to Negroes. 
The trades taught and the number of pupils enrolled in the different 
trade courses on May 26, 1910, were: Baking, 15; basket making, 
broom making, and upholstering, 24; blacksmithing, 39; bricklaying, 
lathing, plastering, and tile setting, 102; brickmaking, 4; carpentry 
and wood turning, 97; dressmaking, 83; electrical work, 29; foundry 
work, 13; harness making and carriage trimming, 26; ladies' tailor- 
ing, 31; laundering, 7; laundering and soap making, 68; machi^ie- 
shop work, 87; millinery, 42; painting (house and carriage), 25; plain 
sewing, 129; plumbing and steam fitting, 16; printing, 24; sawmiliing, 
7; shoemaking, 18; stationary engineering, 15; tailoring, 53; tin- 
smithing, 21; wheel wrigh ting, 23. 

The courses cover one year in electrical work, ladies' tailoring, 
laundering, laundering and soap making, and sawmiUing; two years 
in dressmaking, foundry work, millinery, machine-shop work, .plain 
sewing, and stationary engineering; four years ^ in basket making, 
broom making, and upholstering; in the remaining trades the courses 
are three years in length. 

Candidates for admission to Tuskegee must be not less than 14 
years of age and must be able to pass the entrance examination, which 

1 Broom making 2, upholstering 2. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION-. 97 

involves ability to read and write and to understand addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication, and division. They must submit two letters 
of recommendation from persons of their own communities and must 
be of good moral character. They may enter the school at any time 
of the year. 

The trade pupils attend academic classes from 9 a m. to 12 m. and 
from 1 to 4.30 p m on three days of each week Alternate days are 
spent at their trade, on which days they work from 7.15 a, m. to 12 m. 
and from 1 to 5 p. m. 

Applicants are admitted to the trade courses of their choice as 
nearly as is possible. If, however, the quota of a chosen trade is full, 
the applicant is assigned to some other division until a vacancy 
occurs. In assigning pupils to their trades the mental ability to 
comprehend and the physical ability to perform the required duties 
are carefully considered. 

The academic studies pursued by pupils in the various trade courses 
are mathematics, English, geography, and history. Mechanical 
drawing forms a part of the instruction in some trades and lectures 
on trade topics are included in the curriculum of all trades. The 
time devoted to academic work varies among the different subjects 
and trade courses followed. The aggregate hours per week given 
to theory and other schoolroom work by pupils in the several trade 
classes in 1909-10 were as follows: Baldng, 10 J; basket making, 
broom making, and upholstering, 14; blacfemithing, 13; bricklay- 
ing, lathing, plastering, and tile setting, ITJ; brickmaking, 13^; 
carpentry and wood turning, 14 J; dressmaking, 14; electrical work, 
22^; foundry work, IVJ; harness making and carriage trimming, 13; 
ladies' tailoring, 14; laundering, 15f ; laundering and soap making, 
14; machine-shop work, 21 1; millinery, 14; plain sewing, 14; plumb- 
ing and steam fitting, 21^; printing, 13^; sawmilling, 15f; shoemak- 
ing, 17i; stationary engineering, 21^; tailoring, 13; tinsmithing, 
17i; wheelwrighting, 17^. 

The total time devoted to both schoolroom instruction and practice 
work by the pupils in each trade course during 1909-10 was 45f 
h ours per week. The school year embraces 36 weeks — from the second 
Tuesday in September to the fourth Thursday in May, A summer 
term covers 16 weeks, so that the school is open to pupils during the 
entire calendar year. The regulations governing the summer term 
are the same as those for the regular term. 

The teachers at Tuskegee are all colored. Of 29 teachers of trade 
subjects faUing within the investigation who were employed in 
1909-10, 15 received training at Tuskegee and 4 at Hampton, while 
the others came from various colleges, mostly in the Nortn. Actual 
trade experience in the subject taught, ranging from 2 to 20 years, 
was reported by 13 teachers, and previous experience in teaching the 
trade by 16 teachers. Only 2 or the teachers of trade theory had 
any practical experience. Eight had no trade experience, but a 
tetichmg experience covering from 1 to 8 years. 

Pupils who complete the prescribed course of study in any trade 
are awarded a certificate. About 50 per cent of the pupils are 
reported to leave school at the end of the second year, due m large 
measure to their desire to enter gainful employment. Many of the 
buildings of the institution were built by student labor. 

59G08°— S Doc. 930, G2-2 7 



98 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

While this school makes a considerable commercial product, the 
pupils earn nothing from the sale of products, nor do they work for 
wages outside of school. A part of the school product is used by the 
institution and a part is offered for sale in the open market. In 
1909-10 the value of products sold and work done amounted to 
$2,725. 

Vocational Guidance. 

Vocational guidance is the newest development in connection with 
industrial education, the term being practically unknown and the 
thing practically nonexistent five years ago. As connected with 
industrial education it is based on the fact that the great majority 
of children at the time when they leave school and go to work have 
really made no choice of a pursuit at all, but take the first position 
they can get, regardless of its fitness to them or theirs to it. Often 
the children have not and can not attain the information which would 
enable them to make a choice. 

The history of vocational guidance is not very long, but it has made 
rapid strides. The movement began about five years ago in Boston. 
Its founder, the late Prof. Frank Parsons, director of the Civic Serv- 
ice House, organized a bureau in 1907 for the purpose of advising 
young men in their choice of a vocation. The present bureau repre- 
sents a cooperative effort on the part of public-spirited men and 
women in the fields of labor, education, commerce, manufacture, and 
social work, in an attempt to organize and to put into operation a 
comprehensive plan of vocational advice and assistance for the chil- 
dren and young people of Boston. With all due respect to the activ- 
ities in other parts of the United States, it is believed that this bureau 
presents the most comprehensive plan of action. The bureau does not 
prescribe vocations, nor is it conducted as an employment office; its 
chief service is in bringing together the best occupational information 
and in devising the best methods in. applying such information in 
assisting the child and its parents in making an intelligent choice of a 
career. The bureau cooperates with the schools in outlining methods 
of helping pupils choose their life work and preparing for it. It is also 
conducting a training school for teachers and the school officials 
who have been appointed by the school board of Boston as vocational 
counsels. 

The activities of the vocation bureau fall into four general groups : 

1. The maintenance of an office, centrally located, for the collec- 
tion and study of information concerning the various occupations 
of the community. When secured, this information is classified and 
made pubhc in such a way as to help young people, teachers, and 
parents to understand what the occupations hold out, their advan- 
tages and disadvantages, and the conditions for efficiency and suc- 
cess in each. 

2. To make clear the need of training and educational equipment 
for the desirable occupations, and by advice and cooperation to 
prolong the school period of young people, whether by day, evening, 
or part-time courses, and also to secure other educational oppor- 
tunities when needed. 

3. To organize personal vocational counsehng both for those in 
school and for those already at work in order to enable them to plan 
intelhgently for their educational and vocational progress. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 9y 

4. To furnish opportunities for consultation to people of all ages, 
who have personal problems concerning the trades, the professions, 
and academic or industrial pursuits. 

The late Prof. Frank Parsons, of Boston, noticing how many chil- 
dren were either out of work or unfitted for the work at which they 
were occupied, said: "Since they don't get into their life's work,' we 
will have to start a bureau to give advice about 'Hie work.'" In 
other parts of the country people met the same problem by say- 
ing: ''These children are 'out oi work;' let's get them jobs." Up 
to the present time the movement has been divided into these two 
camps; that is, to get them jobs, or to give them advice about how 
to get jobs. 

Miss Alice P. Barrows, director of the Vocational Guidance Bureau 
of New York City, commenting upon the dangers of vocational 
direction, has the following to say: 

Probably the greatest danger of vocational guidance at the present time is that its 
supporters may endeavor to guide children into vocations. 

"Vocations" and "Guidance" are dangerous words, both because they are vague 
and because they sound impressive. I have never been able to find a satisfactory 
definition of vocation, and it certainly does not seem to be a word descriptive of actual 
conditions. There are "jobs" and there are positions, but one of the problems of 
vocational guidance is to find out what a vocation is at the present time. "Guidance," 
on the other hand, has an ecclesiastical tang that is particularly dangerous to the cause 
of democratic education. It is most questionable whether, under any circumstances, 
anyone has the right to guide children systematically into vocations. Giving guid- 
ance is one thing, and giving information so that there will be greater freedom of choice 
is quite a different thing. At present we can not give even this information about 
vocations, because we do not know enough about actual conditions to give it. Yet 
it sometimes seems as though the whole tendency of vocational guidance at the present 
time were to give some information, any information, because the lack of it is felt so 
keenly — just as a layman in the presence of an ill person might snatch something, 
anything, from the doctor's black bag and give it to the patient, thereby possibly 
injuring him for life. The fact that he did it because he could not bear not to do 
somethmg would hardly exonerate him in the eyes of the world. The fallacy of the 
point of view back of this attempt to meet the situation by immediate action may be 
found in tracing the history of the movement, and there, also, we may find the justi- 
fication of the movement. 

Given the difference in the rapidity of changes in industry and education and a 
sudden awakening on the part of industry to the fact that it needs better workers and 
on the part of education that it has not kept pace with social and industrial changes, 
and add to this a praiseworthy desire on the part of the schools to make up for lost 
time, and on the part of industry a realization that their demand for the Uuining of 
workers is part of a new popular movement in which their judgment as "practical 
men" will carry weight, and we have the scene set for a more subtle anel indefinable 
exploitation of children than the world has ever seen — subtle and indefinable because 
all would be done in the name of the "good of society and of the child"; exploitation 
because the employment of children of 14 is as much exploitation as the emplo> ment 
of children of 10. The chief difference seems to be that, in the case of 14-year-old 
children there is a likelihood of exploitation of their minds at the most important 
period of development; that is, when they are first beginning to use them con- 
sciously, and when they consciously long for training; while with children of 10 exploi- 
tation means the premature death of any ambition for training. I should say that to 
arouse the ambition anel interest of a child of 14 by promising him "trade training" 
the value of which is dubious, and then a job where he "can work up, " when wo have 
no facts to prove that he can work up, and a distinctly uncomfortable feeling tliat ho 
probably can not, is after all even worse than stunting a child by premature labor so 
that you can not arouse his ambition at all. It behooves us not to start vocation 
bureaus too soon, and thereby arouse hopes in the children who are now leaving school 
by promises of training or of jobs which we can not fulfill. It behooves us to make 
sure that our trade courses are worthy of the time and money of the children, and that 
the jobs are fit occupations, before wo urge them to enter either. 



100 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

VOCATION BULLETINS. 

No more far-reaching piece of work has been done to provide an 
insight into and an intelhgent interest in the trades than that accom- 
plished by the Vocation Bureau of Boston. The research studies by 
the bureau on vocations, published in bulletin form, supplies those 
interested with a pen picture of the trades never before attempted. 

Every avenue of information has been exhausted in order to give 
the prospective apprentice a view of the good points as well as the 
shortcomings of the trades, together with an insight into the pros- 
pective earning power commensurate with increasingly developed 
capacity. 

The preparation of these bulletins and of all the other bureau 
activities is under the direction of Mr. Meyer Bloomfield. Already 
eight bulletins have been published, as follows: ''Machinist," ''Bank- 
ing," "The Baker," "Confectionery Manufacture," "The Archi- 
tect," "The Landscape Architect," "The Grocer," "Bookkeeping 
and Accounting," and one on "Department Stores." The purpose 
of issuing the bulletins is to supply information to parents and advisers 
of youth, and to boys and young men concerned over the choice of a 
vocation, but it is not intended that they should take the place of 
personal consultation and cooperation. The bulletins issued are 
most complete and analytical. 

The following bulletin, reproduced in full, is an illustration of the 
work of the bureau and shows the minor details of the particular 
trade applicable to Boston boys : 

THE MACHINIST.* 

Tlie trade: Its divisions, dangers, conditions, and future. — Tli« trade of the macliinist 
consists in the manufacture, installing, and repair of machinery; or "A machinist 
is a constructor of machines and engines, or one versed in the principles of machines; 
in the general sense, one who invents or constructs mechanical devices of any kind." 

The two grand divisions of the occupation are general machine work and tool making. 
The manufacturing branch of the industry, which is almost entirely shopwork, has 
the following specialized lines or di^dsions: The all-round machinist, only a very 
small per cent of those engaged in the occupation; the lathe hand; the planer hand; 
the milling-machine hand; the drill-press hand; the erecting and assembling shop 
hand; the tool, jig, and die hand, a division itself highly specialized; the automatic 
machine operator, who is hardly a machinist; and the outside erecting and assembling 
hand, who must have good judgment and often expert knowledge of the machine to 
be erected. Another division in the industry in some cases quite separate, in others 
not, is that of the machine repairer, who ranks with the erector and assembler. The 
pattern maker is a woodworker. 

Most machinists engage in several of the divisions of the industry or pass readily 
from one to another. Employees of the Government generally remain fixed in one. 

The four divisions of people connected with the occupation receiving wages or 
salary are the apprentice boy, the journeyman, the foreman, and the superintendent. 

The chief danger of the occupation is from dust in cutting and grinding metg/is, 
especially in brass working. There is danger from machinery with hard labor and 
strain in handling heavy materials or working on heavy products. There is consid- 
erable monotony, also, in working on automatic machines. On the other hand, 
some shops manufacture such a variety of products, one shop visited manufacturing 
3,800 different kinds of tools, that the workman's interest is steadily maintained. 

There is keen competition in the general lines of the industry. Many machine 
shops manufacture special machines, tools, or articles, some of which are under 
patent control and are thereby less affected by competition. The field of the machin- 
ist has been enlarged in recent years by the growth of the automobile industry. 

1 Issued by the Vocation Bureau of Boston, printed by permission of the director, Mr. Meyer Bloom- 
field. Copyrighted 1911. 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION". 101 

The high specialization of processes at the present time and constant improve- 
ments in the machinery used in the modern shops affect the number of employees, 
making it comparatively less in the individual shops in most cases year by year, 
while the entire industry enlarges. 

There is an ever- widening field for the expert machinist, and the future of the 
industry will be good in all lines because of the constantly increasing demands of the 
industrial world. 

Pay, positions, and opportunities. — Pay at the beginning ranges from $3 to $8 a 
week, according to age, conditions of apprenticeship, or shop entered, being more 
generally, outside of the apprenticeship system, from $4 to $6 a week. The average 
yearly increase for boys is small, being usually $1 a week each year. 

Boys do errands, act as messengers or as assistants to machinists, do drilling, milling, 
lathe work, planing, shaping, and run light machines. A young man, after a period 
of learning such processes, earns from $12 to $15 a week in most shops. In the general 
trade the wages paid are as follows: In lathe and planer work, erecting and assembling, 
and operating automatic machines, from $1.50 to $2.50 a day; in milling and drill- 
press work, $1.25 to $2 a day; in tool, jig, and die making, from $2.50 to $4.50 a day; 
in outdoor erecting and assembling, from $2.50 to $4.50, with traveling or personal 
expenses added in some cases; in the repair shop, $2.50 to $4; the journeyman who 
has finished his apprenticeship or period of learning earns $2.50 to $2.75 a day; a fore- 
man earns from $21 to $25 a week. The salary of a superintendent depends mainly on 
the man, ranging from some hundreds of dollars a year in the small shop to many 
thousand in the great corporation. The average machinist in Boston earns about $16 
a week, in the State about $600 a year, and the average workman in the trade in the 
United States about $400 a year, taking into consideration the conditions of unem- 
ployment usually existing. Anyone earning less than $2 is sometimes ranked as a 
helper; one getting over $2.50, an expert. 

In repair shops very few boys are employed, trained machinists being regularly 
drawn from other branches of the industry. 

Firms which conduct an apprenticeship system do not generally desire boys on any 
other basis, and give to the few taken outside of the system only unimportant duties, 
as errand and messenger service, which afford little chance to learn and advance in 
the occupation. 

Outside of the trade of the machinist, boys who have had some business training 
do office work in machine shops, as bookkeepers, accountants, and stock-ledger 
keepers, at about the •same pay as such service brings in other industries. 

Outside of any single easy process it takes at least three years to make a boy worth 
much to an employer in a machine shop. Advancement is slow to the age of 20 or 21. 

Apprenticeship in the trade. — The modern apprenticeship system in the various trades 
in this country had its beginning in the years from 1860 to 1872, and from the latest 
statistics available 43 States have laws relating to the employment of apprentices. 
Thirty-eight States provide that in addition to the trade the apprentice shall be taught 
the common English branches of education in some pubhc or other school or through 
such means as the employer may provide. 

The older and larger machine shops in Boston and vicinity have some full or partial 
apprenticeship system, and the general conditions connected with it are as follows: 

1. There is an indenture or agreement of apprenticeship. 

2. The age preferred for entering is 16 or 17, and the age Hmits are 15 and 18. 

3. The usual length of time required is four years, with a probationary period of 
two months. 

4. The pay is generally 8 cents an hour the first year, 10 cents the second year, 12^ 
cents the third year, ana 15 cents the fourth year. 

5. There is a bonus of $100 payable at the end of the period of apprenticeship. 
Against this bonus each apprentice may be chaxgod for tools, technical books, drafting 
equipment, etc. 

6. Time used in study counts as actual service in the shop. 

7. Wages are paid weekly, for 54 hours in the winter and 55 in summer. 

In the apprenticeship system of one large corporation, for machinists, work is given 
during the first six months on the bolt and milling machines and on small tools; on 
general bench work for the second six months, as shaping and filing; for the third six 
months boys work under the direction of various machinists on drills, planers, grinders, 
lathes, and boring mills; the fourth six months tliey are given more difficult work, on 
Blotters, planers, and shapers. At the beginning of the third year the apprentice is 
placed at whatever tool he has shown himself to be moet efficient with and is given 
work which will develop his special ability. After the first six months school work is 
required of the ap])rentice unless he shows that he is already proficient therein. 
During the period of probation apprentices are retjuired to serve as messengers, in office 
duties, or in any miscellaneoufi service. 



102 ^INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION. 

The system of another large corporation is here given in full, by permission: 

Apprentice courses for machinists, die and tool maJcers, and pattern makers. — These 
courses are open to boys of at least 15 years of age who have had a grammar-school 
education or its equivalent and who are physically strong enough to undertake the 
prescribed work. 

The courses last four years (including the trial period). 

Apprentices are paid a compensation of — 

Eight cents for each hour of actual service for the first half year. 

Ten cents for each hour of actual service for the second half year. 

Twelve cents for each horn* of actual service for the second year. 

Fourteen cents for each hour of actual service for the third year. 

Sixteen and one-half cents for each hour of actual service for the fourth year. 

The regular working hours are 55 per week, so that the weekly wages, even at the 
beginning, are sufficient for self-support. 

The completion of the full term of apprenticeship entitles the graduated apprentice 
to a ''certificate of apprenticeship" and a cash bonus of |100. 

The classroom instruction is based on a grammar-school education and includes 
arithmetic, algebra, geometry and plane trigonometry, physics as it concerns simple 
machines, power transmission, strength of materials, machine design, magnetism 
and electricity, mechanical drawing, and jig and fixture design. For pattern-maker 
apprentices an extended course in mechanical drawing is substituted for jig and 
fixture design and for part of the physics instruction. 

^Vhile a small percentage of machinists have served an apprenticeship, this system 
helps make the all-round machinist and a fair proportion of the most skilled workmen 
in the various branches of the trade. 

In the first corporation mentioned about 5 per cent of all employees at the present 
time are serving in some part of the apprenticeship system. 

Union shops allow one apprentice for the shop and one for each five machinists. 

The hoy: Qualities and training required. — In this occupation a boy is rarely taken 
under 15 years of age. From 16 to 18 is the age very generally preferred. Only the 
larger firms have a regular apprenticeship system, since young men after learning the 
trade pass so readily from one shop to another or from one branch of the trade to 
another. 

Boys should have a grammar-school education. In the occupation are found many 
high-school and technical-school graduates, these quite generally becoming foremen 
or superintendents. It is an advantage for young men in machine shops to continue 
their studies in mathematics and drawing in evening schools or classes. 

A boy should have natural mechanical skill or adaptability to tool and hand work. 
He should be strong, energetic, and of good physique. 

Three important factors in advancement in this trade are: First, mastery of the 
work in hand; second, the ability, the health, and the energy to get the related studies 
bearing on the trade, such as shop mathematics, shop English, shop drawing, and shop' 
science and practice; third, the development of the qualities of leadership. 

Comments of people in the trade. — It is a detriment to a boy to specialize. The con- 
stant repetition of a process dulls ambition and narrows interest and power. We will 
not hire the indifferent, street-corner boy. Some parts of the year it is very difficult 
to find any suitable ones. "We want the best out of the schools, and offer them a good 
future. 

The chief trouble with boys in this industry is their inclination to go from shop to 
shop while yet practically learners only. 

The repair shop is a place for expert workmen only — masters of the machines which 
they have to repair. 

Boys naturally want to earn more than is possible in learning a trade and it is not 
always easy to maintain an apprenticeship system in this country. The present high 
industrial organization calls for short cuts and time-saving methods. The machinist, 
however, should serve several years to become an expert workman. 

The chances of a boy to learn are better in a small shop, where he can have the con- 
stant personal attention of an employer or foreman. 

Machinists are quite generally satisfied with their vocation, coming into it after 
some deliberation and frequently through some system of apprenticeship. 

The past in this occupation has been good, and the future has a fair outlook. There 
is a lack still of skilled machinists. 

Comments from the Massachusetts Board of Health Report, Dangerous Occupations, 
1907 — Manufacture of machinery, machine parts, and metal supplies. — In the manufac- 
ture of machinery and metal supplies there are several operations which involve 
exposure to dust, fumes, vapors, or extreme heat. These include making castings, 
cleaning and smoothing, grinding and polishing, and scaling. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 



103 



While the nature of some of the processes is such as to warrant classification of this 
industry with the dangerous trades, the conditions under which the work is done are 
very largely responsible for the injurious effects on the health of the employees, and 
these conditions are to a considerable extent avoidable or at least susceptible of 
improvement. 

[From Massachusetts Census Report.] 

A. — Statistics of manufacture, 1908: Foundry and machine-shop products. 



Number of establishments 

Capital devoted to production 

Value of stock and materials used 

Amount of wages paid during the year 

Average yearly earnings 

Value of product 

Males employed 

Females employed 

Both sexes 

Smallest number 

Greatest number 



The State. 



519 

$60,525,711.00 

S20,791,813.00 

S18, 699, 125.00 

S601.03 

§56,208,811.00 

30, 661 

451 

31,112 

25, 874 

37,863 



Boston. 



106 

$11,152,410.00 

§2,976,147.00 

$2,200,481.00 

?681. 47 

$7, 171, 175. 00 

3,190 

39 

3,229 

2,576 

4,045 



B. — Selected occupations, 1905: Age periods for machinists in employment. 



Under 16 years 

16 to 24 years, inclusive 

25 to 44 years, inclusive 

45 to 64 years, inclusive 

65 years and over, and unknown 

Aggregate number , 



Aggregate. 



Males. 



110 

6,835 

15,810 

6,069 

782 



29, 609 



Fe- 
males. 



Total. 



110 

6,837 

15,811 

6,069 

782 



29,609 



Machinists. 



Males. 



32 

4,986 

15, 278 

5,882 

767 



26, 945 



Fe- 
males. 



Total. 



32 

4,988 

15,279 

5,882 

767 



26, 948 



Ma- 
chin- 
ists' 
helpers. 



78 

1,849 

532 

187 

15 



2,661 



C. — Manufactures, 1905: Machines and machinery . 

Number of establishments 709 

Private firms 479 

Corporations 222 

Industrial combinations 8 

Partners and stockholders 7, 512 

Amount of capital invested $75, 797, 145 

Value of stock used $22, 273, 370 

Value of goods made $59, 621, 469 

Persons employed: 

Average number 33, 182 

Men 16 years and over 32, 395 

Women 16 years and over 539 

Children under 16 years 248 

Smallest number 27, 736 

Greatest number 38, 984 

Excess of greatest over smallest 11, 248 

Total amount paid in wages $19, 271, 846 

Average yearly earnings $580. 79 

Number of salaried persons 2, 836 

Total amount paid in salaries $3, 814, 114 

Average salaries $1, 344. 89 

Average proportion of business done (per cent) 61. 96 

Average number of days in operation 290. 82 



104 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIT. 

STATE COMMISSIONS ON INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

During the last decade nine States — Connecticut, Maine, Mary- 
land, Massachusetts, IVIichigan, New Jersey, Wisconsin, Illinois, and 
Indiana — ^have appointed special commissions for the study of indus- 
trial education. 

The duties of these commissions have usually been to investigate 
the needs for education for persons employed or aiming at employ- 
ment in the different trades, as well as to report upon what extent 
existing institutions are responsible for such training. 

A striking evidence of the growing popular interest in industrial 
education is the number of commissions appointed and the scope of 
their activities as well as their recommendations. 

The results obtained from these investigations have been extremely 
important, inasmuch as legislation has resulted in the revolution of 
the educational systems of the several States. 

It is also of special importance to note that in the States which have 
appointed commissions the municipalities have usually appointed 
commissions for an intense study of the subject, and usually the 
municipal commissions have acted in cooperation with the State com- 
missions to considerable advantage. 

It is also worthy of note that in addition to the studies being made 
by the aforesaid commission that foreign countries have sent com- 
missions to this country to study the educational advantages which 
have been developed. The Moseley Educational Commission and 
the Royal Commission, appointed by the English Government in 
1903, devoted particular attention to the schools offering preparation 
for the trades in this country. More recently the German Govern- 
ment has sent commissioners to study the development of industrial 
education, the results of which were published by the House of Depu- 
ties of the Prussian ParUament. In 1910 the Canadian Government 
appointed a commission to visit the United States and such foreign 
Governments as it deemed expedient to study the systems of trade 
education and report to Parliament. 



Appendix A. 



PRESIDENT GOMPERS S REPORT. 

In his report to the convention of the American Federation of Labor, held in 
Toronto, Canada, November, 1909, President Gompers said under the caption "Indus- 
trial education " : 

"The American labor movement is in line with, and has given expression to, the 
best thought for the education of all the people in all the elements of learning. It 
is especially interested in the further education of the wage-workers of America, 
industrially. At several conventions the American Federation of Labor has gone 
on record upon these subjects, and at Denver last year the following resolution was 
adopted: 

" ^Resolved, That the President, in conjunction with the executive council of the 
American Federation of Labor, be, and is hereby, authorized to appoint a special 
committee of at least 15, to be composed of a majority of trade-union members of this 
convention, who will serve without compensation and incur no expenses other than 
necessary and legitimate expenditure within the judgment of the president and 
executive council, to investigate the methods and means of industrial education in 
this country and abroad, and to report its findings, conclusions, and recommenda- 
tions to the next annual meeting of the American Federation of Labor.' 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 105 

*'In accordance with this instruction the executive council with me endeavored 
to constitute a committee, but there was some difficulty in accomplishing that result 
by correspondence. Later, and during my absence from the country, the committee 
was completed, detailed report of which will be communicated to you in the report 
of the executive council. 

"Two meetings of the committee on industrial education have been held; one in 
New York City during the summer, the other at Washington, D. C, last month. The 
latter I was privileged to attend. Prior to my departure the executive council directed 
that I make an effort to learn some of the present conditions of industrial education 
in European countries as well as the position which organized labor there takes toward 
the subject. With the importatnt duties devolving upon me while abroad, there was 
little time to make a careful study of the systems in vogue, but the best that has been 
said and printed upon the subject has been gathered in printed form. Nowhere in 
all the countries that I visited has there been an expression of org£[nized labor other 
than in full indorsement of the best methods to educate the workers industrially as 
well as alon^ lines of the arts and sciences; and thus there is the universal declaration 
of the organized workers upon this great question. 

"It may not be uninteresting here to call attention to the ignorant, reckless, and 
vindictive hostility which the rost-Van Cleave-Parry-Kirby National Association of 
Manufacturers has manifested toward the American labor movement. When our 
conventions declared in favor of industrial education, and particularly since the 
authorization at Denver for the creation of a special committee to pursue the study 
of the problem and to report, the most malignant misrepresentations of our purposes 
and aspersions upon our character were the utterances of these men who, judging ua 
from their own narrow standpoint, chained us with perverting the purpose of indus- 
trial education. Our own work in this and other fields of activity, the results 
achieved and yet to be achieved, must and will stand as our best answer. 

"The American labor movement appreciates the fact that experience has shown 
that education, industrially, is but one phase of the growing recognition of labor's 
rights, and that in this respect it is closely related to all the general work of the trade- 
union movement, the movement which has since its inception stood for constantly 
increasing better opportunities, better factory and labor conditions, better home^ 
life, and the protection of the young and innocent children from exploitation. 

"Organized labor has always been and is now deeply concerned with the well 
being of the human family and all the influences that go to make for the advance- 
ment of the industrial workers. In our principles and purposes are comprised the 
fullest scope of human activity. Labor has always manifested its humane interest 
in the welfare of children; it realizes that industrial education has the same purpose 
and aims — that is, to secure cooperation of all human agencies which make for the 
betterment of mankind. 

"Industrial education, the raising of the age limit of child workers, and com- 
pulsory school attendance are necessarily a part of the one great beneficial scheme. 
Organized labor has always stood for, aye, has been the pioneer in, the demand 
for free schools, free textbooks, compulsory education in the elementary grades, 
and for the fullest and freest opportunity in all lines of learning, technology included. 

"The subject of education, industrially, concerns not only the wage earners them- 
selves, but every inhabitant of the nation. It is therefore necessary and eminently 
proper that it be administered by the same authority and agency which administers 
our public-school systems and such other institutions as are concerned in the public 
welfare. 

"Already reference has been made to the false position in which some elements 
of employers would place our movement upon this subject. All we ask of fair- 
minded men is a comparison of the utterances of our opponents with our own. We 
contend that education in America must be free, democratic, conducted by, of, and 
for the people, and that it must never be consigned to, or permitted to remain in, 
the power of private interests where there is sure to be the danger of exploitation 
for private profit and willful rapacity. Under the pretense of industrial education 
private agencies for personal profit have perverted the term, resulting in a narrow and 
specialized training, to the detriment of the pupiln, the workers, and i)eoi)le generally. 

"Modern methods of manufacturing, with their division and subdivision and 
specialization, have, to a large extent, rendered nearly superiluous and therefore 
largely eliminated the all-around skilled worker. Some so-called modern ap]>reii- 
ticeship systems are narrow, producing a line of trained 'specialists.' It ha.s l)oen 
well said that specialists in industry are vastly different from specialists iu the i)ro- 
fessions. In the professions specialists develo]) from the knowledge of all the eleinenla 
of the science of the profession. Specialists in industry are tho.»e who know but one 
part of a trade and absolutely nothing of any other part of it. In the professions 



106 INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 

Bpecialists are possessed of all the learning in their professions; in industry the 
specialists are bereft and denied the opportunity of learning the commonest elementary 
rudiments of industry other than the same infinitesimal part performed by them 
perhaps thousands of times over each day. 

"Our movement in advocating industrial education protests most emphatically 
against the elimination from our public-school system of any line of learning now 
ta.ught. Education, technically or industrially, must be supplementary to and in 
connection with our modern school system. That for which our movement stands 
will tend to make better workers of our future citizens, better citizens of our future 
workers." 



Appendix B. 

EXECUTIVE council's REPORT. 

During the second day of the Toronto convention the executive council, in its 
report, made reference to industrial education and its action in relation to the reso- 
lution adopted by the Denver convention, and reported as follows: 

In accordance with the resolution adopted by the Denver convention, which com- 
prehended the appointment of a special committee on industrial education, we beg 
to submit the following report: 

A special committee on industrial education was appointed to consider the subject 
matter therein contained. The resolution creating the special commission reads as 
follows : 

"That the president, in conjunction with the executive council of the American 
Federation of Labor, be, and is hereby, authorized to appoint a special committee of 
at least 15, to be composed of a majority of trade-union members of this conven- 
tion, who will serve without compensation and incur no expenses other than necessary 
and legitimate expenditure within the judgment of the president and executive 
council, to investigate the methods and means of industrial education in this country 
and abroad, and to report its findings, conclusions, and recommendations to the next 
annual meeting of the American Federation of Labor." 

In accordance with its provisions there were appointed as members of the committee 
the following: 

John Mitchell, chairman; headquarters. Civic Federation, 10096 Metropolitan 
Building, New York City. 

John Golden, president Textile Workers, box 742, Fall River, Mass. 

James Wilson, president Pattern Makers' League, 403 Neave Building, Cincinnati, 
Ohio. 

Miss Agnes Nestor, secretary Glove Workers' International Union, room 506, Bush 
Temple of Music, Chicago, 111. _ 

Mrs. Raymond Robins, National Woman's Trade Union League, 372 West Ohio 
Street, Chicago, 111. 

John B. Lennon, Bloomington, 111. 

Charles P. Neill, Commissioner Bureau of Labor, Washington, D. C. 

W. B. Wilson, Congressman, House of Representatives, Washington, D. C. 

Frank Duffy, Brotherhood of Carpenters, box 187, Indianapolis, Ind. 

Hugh Frayne, Sheet Metal Workers, 1711 Summit Avenue, Scranton, Pa. 

James O' Conn ell, machinist, executive board, care Room 405, McGill Building, 
Washington, D. C. 

Charles H. Winslow, Massachusetts commissioner of industrial education, Arling- 
ton, Mass. 

Edward Hirsch, editor. North an^ Baltimore Streets, Baltimore, Md. 

James Roach, iron molder, Albany, N. Y. 

Rev. Charles Stelzle, Department Church and Labor, room 700, 156 Fifth Avenue, 
New York City. 

Stuart Reid, general organizer American Federation of Labor, Lynn, Mass. 

By unanimous request at its first meeting: 

Samuel Gompers, president of the American Federation of Labor, Washington, 
D. C; 

James Duncan, first vice president of the American Federation of Labor, Quincy, 
Mass. ; and 

Frank Morrison, secretary of the American Federation of Labor, Washington, D. C, 
were elected to serve as members of the committee. 

The initial meeting of the committee was held in New York on August 21 and con- 
tinued during the following day. The two days' sessions served for the purpose of 



INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 107 

considering and deciding upon the policy to be pursued. At these meetings infor- 
mation was received by the various members, from its chairman, and others, who were 
requested to appear before them, and with the information imparted, together with 
an exchange of views, considerable progress was made. 

The second meeting was held in Washington, D. C, October 22-23. The committee 
early realized the necessity of going directly to those for information who had made a 
study of the subject, and with this point in view extended invitations to some of the 
foremost educators, business men, and publicists, as well as others, to appear before 
them, and as a result much valuable information was placed at the disposal of the 
committee. The following is a list of the persons invited to appear before the com- 
mittee: 

W. B. Prescott, International Typographical Union, Commission on Supplemental 
Trade Education. 

Charles R. Richards, originator of the National Society for the Promotion of Indus- 
trial Education. 

Leslie W. Miller, principal Pennsylvania Museimi and School of Arts. 

Dr. Herman Schneider, dean of the Universitj' of Cincinnati. 

John M. Shrigley, president Williamson Free School for Mechanical Trades. 

A. Lincoln Filene, of William Filene's Sons Co., Boston, Mass. 

Paul H. Hanus, professor of education, Harvard University. 

Frederick P. Fish, president Massachusetts State Board of Education. 

Dr. Andrew S. Draper, commissioner of education of the State of New York. 

Arthur D. Dean, chief division of trade schools. New York education department. 

0. W. Cross, superintendent of apprentices. New York Central lines. 

Miss Ella M. Haas, district inspector, departmet of inspection of workshops and fac- 
tories of the State of Ohio. 

Charles R. Towson, secretary industrial department, the International Committee 
of Young Men's Christian Association. 

J. C. Monaghan, secretary National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu- 
cation. 

Frank A. Vanderlip, president National City Bank, of New York. 

Dr. Alexander C. Humphreys, president Stevens Institute of Technology. 

Mr. V. Everitt Macy, of New York. 

Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, president of the Carnegie Foundation. 

Dr. Elmer E. Brown, Chief Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 

Mr. C. W. Burket, editor American Agriculturist. 

T.J. Foster, International Correspondence School, Scranton, or representative. 

Raymond Robins, Chicago. 

The net results of this meeting clearly indicated that our committee was pursuing 
a practical policy in its investigations, and that much valuable data and informa- 
tion were obtained. That there was much confusion in the public mind concerning 
industrial education was manifest. The committee conceived it imperative that 
honest differences of opinion be considered and pointed out and that an effort be made 
to help solve this great problem. 

Organized labor favors that plan of industrial training that will give our boys and 
girls such a training as will help them to advance after they are in the industry. 

Organized labor believes that there are pressing educational needs which can be 
at least partially solved by the introduction of industrial training; it is aware that 
boys and girls do not always have the opportunity to enter the field of employment 
which will best contribute to their development either physically, morally, or intel- 
lectually. Those who leave school change from one unskilled occupation to another 
and gain but little or nothing in efficiency. Labor believes that industrial education 
between the ages of 14 and 16 years ought to awaken in these children a new school 
interest, and so help retain them in school longer and contribute more to their devel- 
opment; it believes that if such industrial training took the children between the ages 
of 14 and 16, when they are of little value in a business way, at a time when the edu- 
cation they have received is of advantage so far as it goes, but hardly fits them for actual 
working places, it would serve to give them the proper training to prepare and enter 
some branch of actual vocational work. 

We believe that as much attention should be given to the proper education of 
those who are at work in our industries as is now given to thoso who proparc to enter 
professional and managerial careers, simply to balance justice and make it necessary 
to give to the ^vagc-earning classes and the common industries such equi\'alent as 
we can for what the present schools are doing for the wealthier classes, as well as for 
the professional and managing vocations. 

The personal observations and first-hand information obtained here and in Europ.^an 
countries which embrace the general plan of industrial education in the various 



108 INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

countrieB; details of schools at present in operation, both as regards the courses of 
study and the administration and financing; the views of some of the foremost author- 
ities in industrial education; and the attitude of both employer and organized labor 
toward the instruction provided by numerous schools operated by means of State, 
local, and municipal subsidies and by private funds have all been collated. 

That the impreesions made by our individual and joint study were profound is not 
saying too much and the magnitude of the problem did not lessen. In considering 
the subject of the present status of industrial education it seems necessary to em- 
phasize the need of a thorough and intense study of the future effect on American 
industries and the efl&ciency of the American workers and the full realization of their 
prosperity, and it is deemed expsdient that this question be given the broadest and 
fullest consideration and discussion by this convention. 

The report of the special committee on industrial education will be submitted to 
you in printed form. As that report itself shows, it is not sufficiently exhaustive, 
thorough, and comprehensive to warrant final action, yet it is confidently believed 
that it is an accurate statement of fact and the best that could be ascertained and 
presented within so brief a time as the committee had at its disposal. 

We recommend that the committee be continued for at least another year; that 
they cooperate with the executive council and all other bodies having for their 
purpose extending public industrial education. 



Appendix C. 

The special committee appointed by authority of the Denver convention of the 
American Federation of Labor to consider, investigate, and inquire into the ques- 
tion of industrial education at home and abroad and report in detail to the Toronto 
convention of the American Federation of Labor in 1909, together with whatever 
recommendations, suggestions, instructions, and requests it considered necessary in 
order to place this all-important and vital matter clearly, broadly, and intelligently 
before the wageworkers of the country and the pubhc in general, begs leave to 
report that the committee held three meetings during the year, as follows: 

The first in New York City, August 20 and 21; the second in Washington, D. C, 
October 22 and 23; and the third in Toronto, Canada, November 9. Much informa- 
tion and data bearing on the subject matter of industrial education in all its phases 
was received and very thoroughly discussed, debated, and considered. The com- 
mittee found the question of education, whether cultural, industrial, academic, or 
otherwise, so intensely interesting and vitally important that we have arrived at the 
conclusion that to report in full to this convention would not be advisable, owing 
to the fact that our investigations have not been completed and that we are yet 
awaiting information asked for from some of the most prominent business men of 
America, as well as from educators and others whom the committee thought might 
be able to give valuable data gathered from actual experience. 

REQUIREMENTS OF 'THE RESOLUTION. 

From the terms of the resolution under which the committee was constituted, it 
is evident that what was desired was: 

First. A thorough investigation of the needs of industrial education; 

Second. A statement of the extent to which needs are met by existing institutions, 
and 

Third. As a result of such investigations, some definite suggestions for the promotion 
of industrial education in such manner as might best serve the interests of the whole 
people. 

The committee has entered on its duties without fixed notions as to the form 
which industrial education should take throughout the country, and its investiga- 
tions so far have made a profound impression upon its members. 

DEMAND FOR INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION. 

The importance of our subject can not be too highly estimated. The general 
demand for industrial knowledge and skill and the almost universal interest in the 
subject manifested by business organizations, boards of trade, labor oi^anizations, as 
well as by educators and public men, is sufiicient proof that the right kind of educa- 
tion for a boy or girl who expects to enter upon a vocational career is second only in 
importance to their having an education at all. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 109 

We miist never lose sight of the fact that a large majority of the working people are 
poor, and because of this they are forced to begin the battle of life at an early age. 
The need of the day is that something be done for the children of this great wage- 
working class. 

Formerly the apprenticeship system offered the boy an opportunity to learn a trade 
and become a thoroughly trained mechanic, but of late years the scheme of specializa- 
tion has supplanted the old apprenticeship system, even to extreme specialization. 
It ought to be recognized as a scientific truth that the higher the skill possessed by 
the mechanic the more valuable is his labor, both to himself, his employer, and the 
community. The more eflBcient labor becomes, the higher wages it should command. 

The one trouble in America to-day is that loo many of our youths who have gradu- 
ated from the grammar or high school are misfits industrially. If we are to secure 
industiial supremacy, or even maintain our present standards in the industrial world, 
we must in some way in our educational system acquire an equivalent to our old 
apprenticeship system. 

APPRENTICESHIP SYSTEM. 

It is of more than passing interest to note that a revival of apprenticeships by large 
corporate interests through comprehensive and sane regulations are gradually taking 
form. 

With the growing feeling that the old-time apprenticeship system must be modified 
\:o meet modern conditions of life there looms up the question of a substitute which 
shall keep the best and most necessary of the older customs and meet modern require- 
ments. 

It is generally conceded by those interested in industrial education that the indus- 
trial school, per se, does not and can not result in turning out a full-fledged, skilled 
mechanic ready to take up his trade. 

It is further recognized that the old apprenticeship system possessed many features 
that were uneconomic and unjust, but with the preservation of much that was good 
and its application by proper blending with the modern idea of perfection in theory, 
it would lead to more satisfactory results. 

A marked tendency toward apprenticeships is taking place, and the feeling expressed 
by both employer and employed is that a gradual return will take place if such train- 
ing is conducted sanely and advantageously to the American youth. 

In order to bring out practical suggestions toward a solution of the problem the com- 
mittee addressed themselves to the following questions: 

1. Should trade, vocational, technical, and industrial schools be established as a 
part of the public -school system? 

2. Should private industrial educational institutions be tolerated? 

3. Under what conditions and terms should industrial schools, either public or 
private, be countenanced and supported? 

4. Under what conditions should semiprivate or semipublic industrial schools, 
namely, the so-called "cooperative industrial schools," be approved or disapproved? 

5. Should they be free, supported by the city, county, or State in which they are 
located? 

6. Should they be under the control or partial control of the National Government? 

7. And should their instructors or teachers be practical men from the ranks of 
trade occupations, or should they be men who know nothing of the trade itself except 
its theoretical side? 

8. What should be taught under the head of " Industrial education"? — the cultural 
side, the professional side, the mechanical side, the business side, or all combined? 

9. To what extent, if any, should labor headquarters, labor temples, and labor 
halls be used to favor industrial education? 

Believing that progress could best be promoted by a close study of the prevailing 
systems now in vogue, and that some way should be provided so that the maximum 
of information should be obtained at the minimum cost of time and expense, the com- 
mittee decided that invitations should be extended to a group of the foremost expo- 
nents of industrial education to meet with them in Washington October 23 and 24 for 
the purpose of conferring and explainnig the merits of the several types of industrial 
education, and accordingly the following persons were extended invitations: 

W. B. Prescott, International Typographical Unit)n, commission on supplemental 
education. 

Charles R. Richards, originator of the National Society for the Promotion of Indus- 
trial Education. 

Leslie W. Miller, principal Pennsylvania Museum and School of Arts. 

Dr. Herman Schneider, dean of the University, of Cincinnati. 

John M. Shrigley, president Williamson Free School for Mechanical Trades. 



110 INDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

A, Lincoln Filene, of William Filene's Sons Co., Boston. 

Paul H. Hanus, professor of education, Harvard University. 

Frederick P. Fish, chairman Massachusetts State board of education. 

Dr. Andrew S. Draper, commissioner of education of the State of New York. 

Arthur D. Dean, chief division of trade schools, New York educational department, 

C. W. Cross, superintendent of apprentices. New York Central Lines. 

Miss Ella M. Haas, district inspector, department of inspection of workshops and 
factories of the State of Ohio. 

Charles R. Towson, secretary industrial department of the International Committee 
of Young Men's Christian Associations. 

J. C. Monaghan, secretary National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 

Frank A. Vanderlip, president National City Bank, of New York. 

Dr. Alexander C. Humphreys, president .Stevens Insitute of Technology. 

Mr. V. Everitt Macy, of New York. 

Dr. Henry S. Pritchett, president of the Carnegie Foundation. 

Dr. Elmer E. Brown, Chief Bureau of Education, Department of the Interior. 

Mr. 0. W. Burket, editor American Agriculturist. 

Mr. T. J. Foster, International Correspondence School, Scranton, or representative. 

Mr. Raymond Robins, Chicago, 111. 

Naturally the result of this meeting, which occupied the greater portion of two 
days, with one evening session, was illuminating and instructive, and served to show 
the keen interest and alertness of labor representatives. 

The object of the several systems of education was kept steadily in view throughout 
the entire conference, and the description of the leading types, showing their aims, 
objects, and methods of instruction, made a profound impression upon the members 
of the committee. 

There was a remarkable unanimity of opinion on important points in regard to 
industrial education and the numerous demands for technical training for those who 
have completed a compulsory school attendance period and who desire to take up an 
industrial vocation at a later time. 

It also served to show that the much-heralded apathy and disinterestedness charged 
by our critics to the trades-unions is more imaginary than real, and that organized 
labor was fairly abreast of the situation. 

To the ladies and gentlemen who, at the sacrifice of valuable time from their business, 
cooperated with the committee in its investigations, the committee feels deeply 
grateful and appreciates the gratuitous services rendered in the abundant information 
and assistance given, and sympathizes with the universal thought expressed that the 
conference marked another epoch in the history of the trades-union movement for 
industrial education. 

Subsequent discussion seemed to indicate that the champions of one system as 
against another might learn much from the different viewpoints, and that there was 
common ground for all on which to base the future development of a sound system of 
industrial education, free from the dangers which trades-union representatives 
pointed out. 

PUBLIC V. PRIVATE CONTROL OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION. 

The committee feels that there is justification in condemning any system of public 
instruction privately controlled, or any scheme of private selection of pupils, and 
calls attention to the introduction of a plan which is being put into operation in several 
localities and fostered by manufacturers' associations. 

"the COOPERATIVE INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION PLAN." 

It is a limited plan for industrial education, carried on between the high school, 
which engages a teacher for the purpose, one satisfactory to the manufacturers, and a 
group of the latter who indenture such boys as they desire to have. The idea is, of 
course, to give a thorough training. But, 

(a) The manufacturer is not obliged to take any boys, or to keep any boy. 

On the other hand, the high school is obliged to educate all duly qualified boys, to 
give them all that the city provides. 

Therefore those who study in the cooperative course do so on sufferance. 

(6) The people have no hand in this plan. No matter how much a father may 
desire such training for the boy, the city is helpless to do anything, as under this 
plan the veto power over the boy's right to public industrial education is in the hands 
of the manufacturer. 

(c) The public school must be neutral as to trade-unioniem. Surely it dare not be 
hostile. But what is th\re to restrain one or all the cooperative plants from assuming 



INDUSTEIAL EDUCATIOIT. Ill 

any attitude, however hostile? They have the right to teach and to foster antiunion- 
ism with school-apprenticed boys under them. 

(d) A boy who should talk over or agitate for union principles can be instantly 
deprived of his educational future under this plan; and if his father should be a 
known union champion only the good nature of the manufacturer can prevent reprisal 
in the form of dropping the boy from this course. 

(e) The teacher can not help siding with the manufacturers; he can not protest, 
should he so wish, if they import scabs, strike breakers, or any sworn foes of unioEs. 
It is not for the school to say who shall be the fellow workmen of these young student 
apprentices. If he be a man of principles, he could not take the boys out of such a 
shop, for they are under bond. 

(/) Finally, with a teacher too soft on the side of the manufacturers, we shall see, for 
the first time in a public school system, a spirit new in evil power — a class of school- 
boys trained under a thoroughly un-American system of private selection of pupils, 
based on no public or competitive method, unless the manufacturers so permit. 

A system wholly removed from the salutary supervision of the people. 

A system which needs no check in prejudicing the favorites of this system against 
the large excluded class of their school fellows, and later, against their fellow workmen 
themselves. 

Any scheme of education which depends for its carrying out on a private group, sub- 
ject to no public control, leaves unsolved the fundamental democratic problem of giv- 
ing the boys of the country an equal opportunity and the citizens the power to criticize 
and reform their educational machinery. 

The trend toward the introduction of schemes of industrial education and appren- 
ticeships at public, as well as private expense, which pretends to teach trades in periods 
ranging from four months to four years, and turn out graduates in times of industrial 
peace who are able to earn only 50 per cent of the established wage in a given trade, 
and in times of industrial dispute are exploited in the interests of unfair employers, is 
worthy only of condemnation. 

LEGISLATION. 

Results vast in importance and masrnitude have come from the action of Congress, 
in 1862, in giving land grants to each S.ate, to be used for a State college of agriculture 
and mechanic arts. This appropriation of lands, followed by direct appropriation of 
money in 1890 and 1907, provides these colleges with a fund averaging about $65,000 
per State, or a total of over $3,000,000 annually. While this fund was for a long time 
used largely for general studies, the subjects of mechanical arts, agriculture and home 
economics were finally developed, so that they now compete on nearly equal terms 
with the literary and scientific courses. Since most of this fund is in demand to train 
engineers, technical agriculturists and teachers in the mechanical, agricultural, and 
home economics subjects, comparatively little is available to give school training to 
those who wish to become expert workmen, farmers or home makers. 

The title of the land grant act of 1862 provided for ''colleges for the benefit of agri- 
culture and the mechanic arts. ' ' Each State was required to " in\'iolably ' ' appropriate 
the accruing interest and earnings from this gift to the " endowment, support, and main- 
tenance of at least one college, where the leading object shall be, without excluding 
other scientific and classical subjects, and including military tactics, to teach such 
branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in such 
sequence as the legislatures of States may respectively prescribe, in order to promote 
the liberal and practical education of industrial classes in the several pursuits and 
professions of life." 

Though the law was plainly designed for the betterment of that 90 per cent who 
are in vocations where the labor is done with the hands, these schools, as most other 
schools, too often were conducted mainly to assist those who were seeking an avenue 
out of the manual side of the mechanical trades, agriculture, and home-making into 
the so-called professions. The research departments connected with these colleges 
and with other scientific and engineering schools and departments have now accu- 
mulated a vast body of knowledge useful to the workman. Much of this infornuition 
has been arranged in textbooks and in courses for practical work in the school shops, 
in the commercial shops, on the farms, or in the home. 

Gratified with the developments of the State colleges of agriculture and moclianic 
arts, Congress has been ever ready to meet requests to further build up those institu- 
tions. And Ihere is a movement, with a large following in Congress, to still furl her 
develop the education to which these colleges were dedicated. Since only one college 
in a State can do little more for our greatly enlnrgcul po])ulati()n than to provide 
courses of study for fhose who are to become technicians, and can not give equal 
opportunity in liberal and practical education to all of the industrial classes, this 



112 IKDUSTEIAL EDUCATION. 

new movement has crystallized around a plan for including the secondary public 
schools along with the State colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts, thus creating 
and giving direction to a complete national scheme of education, in which labor 
shall receive recognition and its just share of attention. 

ORGANIZED LABOR's POSITION. 

Organized labor's position regarding the injustices of narrow and prescribed train- 
ing in selected trades, by both private and public instruction, and the flooding of 
the labor market with half-trained mechanics for the purposes of exploitation, is 
perfectly tenable, and the well-founded belief in the viciousness of such practices, 
and consequent condemnation, is well-nigh unassailable. 

Organized labor's record for years in regard to better sanitary conditions in factories 
and workshops, and its continued efforts toward safeguarding women and mines, 
have been the subject of wide discussion and much helpful legislation. 

Its advocacy of free schools, free text books, and the raiding of compulsory school 
age have been religiously adhered to, and closely allied to these subjects is ttat cf 
industrial education, and any serious discussion of the proper kind of vocarional 
training promotes discussion of the former. 

There is a stroEg reaction coming in general methods of education, and that growing 
feeling, which is gaining rapidly in strength, that the human element must be recog- 
nized, and can not be so disregarded as to make the future workers mere automatic 
machines. 

Experience has shown that manual-training school-teachers without actual trade 
expsrience do not and can not successfully solve this great problem, and that progress 
will necessarily be slow, as new teachers must be provided, a new set of textbooks 
will have to be written, and the subjects taught m a sympathetic and systematic 
manner. 

In the last analysis, it is of greater moment to those engaged in industry whether 
this question should be discussed freely and fairly than it is to mere theorists, who 
advocate industrial education without having any definite plan or puipoee (other than 
a selfish one), in their advocacy of the same, and it is believed that a unification rather 
than a multiplication of effort is needed in order to help solve this immense problem. 

CONCLUSIONS. 

It is believed that the future welfare of America largely depends on the industrial 
training of our workers and in protecting them. 

The inquiries of the committee seem to indicate that if the American workman is 
to maintain the high standard of efficiency, the boys and girls of the country must 
have an opportunity to acquire educated hands and brains, such as may enable them 
to earn a living in a setf -selected vocation and acquire an intelligent understanding of 
the duties of good citizenship. 

No better investment can be made by taxpayers than to give every youth an oppor- 
tunity to secure such an education. Such an opportunity is not now within the reach 
of the great majority of the children of the wageworkers. The present system is 
inadequate and unsatisfactory. Only a small fraction of the children who enter the 
lower grades continue through the grades until they complete the high-school course. 
The reasons which seem to be the prime causes for withdrawal are, first, a lack of 
interest on the part of the pupils, and, secondly, on the part of the parents and a dis- 
satisfaction that the schools do not offer instruction of a more practical character. 
The pupils become tired of the work they have in hand and see nothing more inviting 
in the grades ahead. The are conscious of powers, passions, and tastes which the 
school does not recognize. They long to grasp things with their own hands and test 
the strength of materials and the magnitude of forces. 

Owing to past methods and influences, false views and absurd notions possess 
the minds of too many of our youths, which cause them to shun work at the trades 
and to seek the ofiice or store as much more genteel and fitting. This silly notion 
has been shaken by the healthy influence of unions, and will be entirely eradicated 
if industrial training becomes a part of our school system, and in consequence of 
this system of training he will advance greatly in general intelligence, as well as 
In technical skill, and in mental and moral worth he will be a better citizen and a 
better man and will be more valuable to society and to the country. 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 

Supplemental technical education. — The importance of this kind of school for those 
who have already entered the trades has been a matter for serious consideration by 
the committee. 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 113 

The demand for such instruction is measured by the necessity for training in par- 
ticular trades and industries, and the chief aim of such instruction should be to present 
those principles of arts and sciences which bear upon the trades and industries, either 
directly or indirectly. 

The economic need and value of technical training is not to be disregarded, and 
cognizance should be taken of the fact that throughout the civilized world evening 
and part-time day technical schools enroll 20 pupils to every ] who attends the other 
types of vocational schools. 

The committee submits for consideration and discussion to the convention the 
proposition that there be established, at public expense, technical schools for the 
purpose of giving supplemental education to those who have entered the trades as 
apprentices. 

We further recommend — 

1. The continuance of progressive development of supplemental trade education 
as inaugurated by trade unions, and call special attention to the work undertaken 
by the International Typographical Union in the establishment of a school for the 
higher education of its members. 

It is a practical application to a trade union of a necessity that exists and is admitted. 

It is administered by printer- tutors who have never been afflicted with peda- 
gogical cramp, and never expect to be; is within the reach of every man within 
the industry, and has succeeded in developing the latent talents and of widening the 
sphere of usefulness among its students, and ought to appeal to every ambitious 
printer. 

A significant fact in connection with this school is that educators, as well as others 
of wide experience, believe that, for the adaptation to an end, this school has no 
equal. It also marks a new era in education, and one of its chief assets, other 
than the education of its students, is that public and private interests are emulating its 
example. 

While other trade unions are engaged in activities of a like nature, though 
expressed in various forms, for the sake of brevity elaborate descriptions are 
omitted. 

It is worthy of mention, however, that large sums of money are annually 
expended by trade unions for education, through the channels of official journals, 
and in some instances its members are being trained for the teaching profession, 
while the preparation of textbooks is another undertaking to be commended. 

The committee further recommends that all trade unions which have not 
adopted a system of technical education give the matter the consideration it so 
richly deserves; and we further believe that the present undertakings of the unions 
call for the most enthusiastic admiration, and are entitled to the most cordial and 
loyal support. 

Following is a list of organizations which have undertaken an extension of educa- 
tion for their members: 

International Typographical Union, Electrotypers and Stereotj'pers, International 
Photo-Engravers of North America, Printing Pressmen and Assistants' Union, Inter- 
national Granite Cutters, International Horseshoers' Union, Pattern Makers' League 
of North America, and the Carpenters of Chicago and Cook County. 

Technical industrial education — 

2. We favor the establishment of schools in connection with the public-school 
system, at which pupils between the ages of 14 and 16 may be taught the prin- 
ciples of the trades, not necessarily in separate buildings, but in separate 
schools adapted to this particular education, and by competent and trained teachers. 

The course of instruction in such a school should be English, mathematics, 
physics, chemistry, elementary mechanics, and drawing. The shop instruction for 
particular trades, and for each trade represented, the drawing, mathematics, mechan- 
ics, physical and biological science applicable to the trade, the history of that trade, 
and a sound system of economics, including and emphasizing the philosophy of 
collective bargaining. This will serve to prepare the pupil for more advanced sub- 
jects, and in addition to disclose his capacity for a specific vocation. 

In order to keep such schools in close touch with the trades there should be local 
advisory boards, including representatives of the industries, employers, and organized 
labor. 

3. The committee recommends that any technical education of the workers in 
trade and industry being a public necessity, it should not be a private but a public 
function, conducted by the public, and the expense involved at public cost. 

4. We recommend the continuance of the life of the committee and final report to 
the 1910 convention. 

59008"— S. Doc. 03G, G2-2 8 



114 



INDUSTKIAL EDUCATION". 



5. That the convention requests the United States Department of Commerce and 
Labor to investigate the entire subject of industrial education in this country and 
abroad. 

6. To request the committee to cooperate with the Department of Commerce and 
liabor in said investigation. 

7. To request the executive council of the American Federation of Labor to act 
with said committee ex officio. 

8. To request the officers of all organizations affiliated with the American Federation 
of Labor to supply us with all information they may have relative to industrial educa- 
tion as soon as possible, for the purpose of getting an up-to-date report with up-to-date 
methods of how industrial education should be taught, conducted, and promoted. 

Appended to this report is a brief prepared for the use of the committee, which 
purposes to show, with reasonable brevity, just what is being done, and what has 
been begun in the recent past in regard to industrial education, including the problem; 
what has been done in foreign countries, methods of accomplishment in this country, 
showing systems and types of systems; that which is being accomplished by philan- 
thropy and private interests; also that which is being done by the Federal Govern- 
ment, together with the State laws on the subject, and the attitude of employers and 
organized labor. 



John Mitchell, Chairman. 
Samuel Gompers. 
James Duncan. 
John B. Lennon. 
Dr. Charles P. Neill. 
Edward Hirsch. 
Frank Morrison. 
James Wilson. 
Hon. W. B. Wilson. 
Rev. Charles Stelzle. 



Hugh Frayne. 

Frank Duffy. 

John Golden. 

Margaret Dreier Robins. 

Agnes Nestor, 

James Roach. 

Jas. O'Connell. 

Stuart Reid. 

Charles H. Win slow. 



o 



Cc 



LE D '12 



